example of table of contents in term paper

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Free Table of Contents Templates (for Microsoft Word)

Whether you are writing a book, large essay, dissertation, or other longer academic papers, you will have to include a table of contents. It will act as a roadmap for the reader to each portion of your writing. It helps the reader to locate specific information in a document or revisit their favorite parts easily within the text. A well-structured TOC should simplify the way the reader finds what they are looking for and should always be placed on a separate page, just after the first page of an academic paper and after the abstract.

Depending on the type of writing, you may find that different documents require different styles of a TOC. Some may require numbers, while others may require a non-numbered TOC. It is, therefore, the writer’s duty to check the type of TOC they are required to include in their writing.

Free Table of Contents Templates

Simple templates

What is a Table of Contents?

A Table of Contents (TOC) is an organized list of all the parts of a document or book organized in the order in which the parts appear.

The TOC usually contains the titles, chapters, figures, and major sections of a document clearly labeled by their page number. It should be added last or updated after completing the whole document or book to capture all the contents accurately.

The Purpose of table of contents

If a book, business proposal , business report , or publication is long enough to include chapters, then a TOC will likely be included at the beginning of the book, report, or publication.

The TOC provides a sequential list of the book’s organizational structure, most commonly denoting the title, chapter number, and the starting page location. The chapter, page number, and title will help guide the reader in finding specific sections.

Basically, it serves two main purposes; one is to provide the reader with a general overview of what is contained in the document and how the content is organized, and the other is to enable the reader to go directly to the specific section of an on-line document.

Key Elements of a Table of Contents

The TOC is where one lists the chapters and major sections of their document, together with their page numbers. A clear and well-out table is very important as it indicates a quality paper is structured.

The key elements that should be included in the TOC are:

• The page titles
• Clear headings and subheadings
• The page numbers that show where in the document each section can be found

When creating your table, make sure to include all level one and two headings. You may also decide to include level three headings, although they are optional to include and should not be included in the TOC has reached its maximum length of two pages.

Level One:   CHAPTER 2: Literature Review

Level Two: 2.1 Overview of Information

Level Three: 2.1.1 Discipline of Knowledge

Ensure that you use clear headings throughout your document to make your table easy to understand. Keep in mind that the reader will see the table first before reading through your document.

Other things to include in your table include the appendices and tables. Including these two, however, depend largely on how many there are in your document.

If there are more than three tables and figures, you might consider listing them on a separate page. Else, you can include them in your table.

Steps to Create a Table of Contents in MS Word

For you to create a TOC in Microsoft Word, you must first define what you’d like to include in this part. First, start off by applying the different heading styles throughout your document.

Once you’ve done that, follow these steps to insert a TOC in MS Word automatically:

Add a title on the TOC page. Ensure that you follow the standard format specific to your document or as per your department’s guidelines.

Put your cursor where you want the table to go. The table is usually included between the abstract and the introduction.

In the ribbon, find the reference section and locate the TOC section. Use the search tab on the ribbon to search for the table.

Click the arrow that is next to the TOC icon and select Custom Table of Contents. Here, select the level of heading that you would like to include in your table and also make the necessary adjustments to each level by clicking the modify button.

Click on Custom table of contents.

After you’ve made sure that everything is OK. Click OK, and your TOC will be automatically generated.

Tips on Preparing Table of Contents

It is recommended that you use your TOC template last after to make sure that it provides a clear overview of your document. You can still draw up a mock TOC in your early stages of writing to help you formulate a structure and think through your topics and how you are going to research.

Make sure that all the heading levels are properly defined in your document before inserting the template.

Remember that the reader will most likely go through your table first before diving into the document to get an overview of what to expect. Make sure that your TOC is clear and that it captures your entire document.

Frequently Asked Questions

No, the TOC is basically a snapshot of the headings, tables, and page numbers in a document and does not automatically update itself as you make changes. Anytime you make changes to your document, you can update it by simply right-clicking on it and selecting the update field.

No, the TOC is usually included between the abstract and the introduction.

Yes, the maximum length of a TOC should be two pages, regardless of the type of document you are writing.

Regardless of your document’s type or size, using a TOC can help direct the readers to exactly where they want to be. Other than making your document more reader-friendly, the table also makes it easier for the author to go back and change or update contents throughout their document if necessary. By default, MS Word generates a TOC when you use the first three built-in heading styles, i.e., Heading 1, Heading 2, and Heading 3. To apply the different heading styles, simply select the style from the “Home” tab, or you can use a TOC template. Once you’ve properly defined the heading styles, follow the procedure given above to insert your table automatically.

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• Writing Tips

How to Structure the Table of Contents for a Research Paper

4-minute read

• 16th July 2023

So you’ve made it to the important step of writing the table of contents for your paper. Congratulations on making it this far! Whether you’re writing a research paper or a dissertation , the table of contents not only provides the reader with guidance on where to find the sections of your paper, but it also signals that a quality piece of research is to follow. Here, we will provide detailed instructions on how to structure the table of contents for your research paper.

Steps to Create a Table of Contents

• Insert the table of contents after the title page.

Within the structure of your research paper , you should place the table of contents after the title page but before the introduction or the beginning of the content. If your research paper includes an abstract or an acknowledgements section , place the table of contents after it.

• List all the paper’s sections and subsections in chronological order.

Depending on the complexity of your paper, this list will include chapters (first-level headings), chapter sections (second-level headings), and perhaps subsections (third-level headings). If you have a chapter outline , it will come in handy during this step. You should include the bibliography and all appendices in your table of contents. If you have more than a few charts and figures (more often the case in a dissertation than in a research paper), you should add them to a separate list of charts and figures that immediately follows the table of contents. (Check out our FAQs below for additional guidance on items that should not be in your table of contents.)

• Paginate each section.

Label each section and subsection with the page number it begins on. Be sure to do a check after you’ve made your final edits to ensure that you don’t need to update the page numbers.

• Format your table of contents.

The way you format your table of contents will depend on the style guide you use for the rest of your paper. For example, there are table of contents formatting guidelines for Turabian/Chicago and MLA styles, and although the APA recommends checking with your instructor for formatting instructions (always a good rule of thumb), you can also create a table of contents for a research paper that follows APA style .

• Add hyperlinks if you like.

Depending on the word processing software you’re using, you may also be able to hyperlink the sections of your table of contents for easier navigation through your paper. (Instructions for this feature are available for both Microsoft Word and Google Docs .)

To summarize, the following steps will help you create a clear and concise table of contents to guide readers through your research paper:

1. Insert the table of contents after the title page.

2. List all the sections and subsections in chronological order.

3. Paginate each section.

4. Format the table of contents according to your style guide.

5. Add optional hyperlinks.

If you’d like help formatting and proofreading your research paper , check out some of our services. You can even submit a sample for free . Best of luck writing your research paper table of contents!

What is a table of contents?

A table of contents is a listing of each section of a document in chronological order, accompanied by the page number where the section begins. A table of contents gives the reader an overview of the contents of a document, as well as providing guidance on where to find each section.

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What should I include in my table of contents?

If your paper contains any of the following sections, they should be included in your table of contents:

●  Chapters, chapter sections, and subsections

●  Introduction

●  Conclusion

●  Appendices

●  Bibliography

Although recommendations may differ among institutions, you generally should not include the following in your table of contents:

●  Title page

●  Abstract

●  Acknowledgements

●  Forward or preface

If you have several charts, figures, or tables, consider creating a separate list for them that will immediately follow the table of contents. Also, you don’t need to include the table of contents itself in your table of contents.

Is there more than one way to format a table of contents?

Yes! In addition to following any recommendations from your instructor or institution, you should follow the stipulations of your style guide .

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A term paper is an extensive research paper typically assigned at the end of a semester or academic term, allowing students to demonstrate their understanding and in-depth knowledge of a particular subject. It involves thorough research, analysis, and synthesis of information from various sources to address a specific topic or question, culminating in a comprehensive written report. Term papers are designed to assess students’ critical thinking, research skills, and ability to communicate their findings effectively, often accounting for a significant portion of their final grade. Essential components include a Thesis Statement for Research Paper , a Research Paper Cover Letter , and adherence to the Research Paper Format .

What is Term Paper?

A term paper is a detailed research paper written by students over an academic term, contributing significantly to their final grade. It demonstrates their understanding and analysis of a specific topic, includes a thesis, supporting arguments, and evidence, and requires citations from academic sources.

Term Paper Format

Title of the Paper Student’s Name Course Name and Number Instructor’s Name Date of Submission

A brief summary of the paper (150-250 words) Key points, objectives, methods, results, and conclusions

Introduction

Introduction to the topic Thesis statement Purpose and objectives Paper overview

Literature Review

Overview of Existing Research Key Theories and Studies Gaps in the Literature Relevance to the Current Study

Methodology

Research design Data collection methods Sample selection Analysis techniques

Presentation of findings Use of tables and figures (if applicable)

Interpretation of results Comparison with existing literature Implications and limitations

Summary of key findings Restatement of thesis Future research implications

List of All Sources Cited Formatted According to a Specific Citation Style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.)

Appendices (if applicable)

Additional Material Raw Data Questionnaires Detailed Calculations

Formatting Guidelines

Font: Times New Roman, 12-point Spacing: Double-spaced Margins: 1 inch Page numbers: Top right corner Consistent headings and subheadings

Term Paper Examples for Students

• The Impact of Climate Change on Coastal Ecosystems
• The Role of Social Media in Modern Marketing Strategies
• The Influence of Ancient Greek Philosophy on Western Thought
• Cybersecurity Threats and Solutions in the 21st Century
• The Effectiveness of Online Learning During the COVID-19 Pandemic
• The Relationship Between Diet and Mental Health
• An Analysis of Shakespeare’s Use of Tragic Heroes
• The Evolution of Women’s Rights in the United States
• The Economic Impact of Immigration Policies
• The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare
• The History and Future of Space Exploration
• The Psychological Effects of Video Games on Children
• The Ethics of Genetic Engineering
• The Cultural Significance of Traditional Festivals in Japan
• The Impact of Globalization on Local Economies
• The Role of Renewable Energy in Combating Climate Change
• The Effects of Substance Abuse on Family Dynamics
• An Examination of Modernist Architecture
• The Influence of the Harlem Renaissance on American Literature
• The Legal and Social Implications of Data Privacy Laws
• The Role of Sports in Promoting Social Integration
• An Analysis of Economic Inequality in Developing Countries
• The Impact of Music Therapy on Mental Health Recovery
• The Development and Impact of the Internet of Things (IoT)
• The Relationship Between Sleep Patterns and Academic Performance

Simple Term Paper Examples

• The Effects of Video Games on Child Development
• The History and Impact of the Civil Rights Movement
• Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): Benefits and Risks
• The Influence of Greek Philosophy on Western Thought
• The Impact of Immigration on the U.S. Economy
• The Role of Education in Reducing Poverty
• The Ethics of Animal Testing in Medical Research
• Mental Health Stigma and Its Social Implications
• The Evolution of E-commerce and Online Shopping
• The Importance of Early Childhood Education

Types of Term Papers

1. analytical term papers.

• Definition: Analyzes a specific issue or topic, breaking it down into its components and examining them in detail.
• Purpose: To provide a deep understanding of the subject through detailed analysis.
• Example: “The Economic Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture”

2. Argumentative Term Papers

• Definition: Presents an argument on a particular topic, supporting it with evidence and reasoning.
• Purpose: To persuade the reader of a specific viewpoint or stance.
• Example: “The Case for Renewable Energy Sources over Fossil Fuels”

3. Definition Term Papers

• Definition: Explores the meaning and implications of a specific concept or term.
• Purpose: To clarify and define a concept in depth.
• Example: “Defining Social Justice in Modern Society”

4. Compare and Contrast Term Papers

• Definition: Examines the similarities and differences between two or more subjects.
• Purpose: To highlight comparative aspects and provide insights into the subjects.
• Example: “Comparing Online Education with Traditional Classroom Learning”

5. Cause and Effect Term Papers

• Definition: Investigates the causes of a particular event or phenomenon and its effects.
• Purpose: To understand the relationships between events and outcomes.
• Example: “The Causes and Effects of the 2008 Financial Crisis”

6. Interpretive Term Papers

• Definition: Provides an interpretation of a specific piece of literature, artwork, or historical event.
• Purpose: To offer insights and perspectives on the subject.
• Example: “Interpreting Symbolism in F. Scott Fitzgerald’s ‘The Great Gatsby'”

7. Research-Based Term Papers

• Definition: Relies heavily on existing research and data to discuss a particular topic.
• Purpose: To present an in-depth analysis based on extensive research.
• Example: “The Role of Vaccinations in Public Health”

8. Reflective Term Papers

• Definition: Reflects on a personal experience or event and its significance.
• Purpose: To provide a personal perspective and insights.
• Example: “Reflections on My Internship Experience in a Non-Profit Organization”

9. Case Study Term Papers

• Definition: Focuses on a detailed examination of a particular case within a real-world context.
• Purpose: To analyze specific instances and draw broader conclusions.
• Example: “A Case Study of the Flint Water Crisis”

10. Expository Term Papers

• Definition: Explains or describes a topic in a straightforward and factual manner.
• Purpose: To inform and educate the reader about the subject.
• Example: “An Overview of the U.S. Healthcare System”

Importance of Term Papers

1. development of research skills.

• Encourages thorough exploration of various information sources
• Enhances data gathering, analysis, and interpretation abilities

2. Enhancement of Writing Skills

• Improves clarity, precision, and organization in writing
• Refines grammar and syntax

3. Critical Thinking and Analytical Skills

• Fosters logical reasoning and problem-solving
• Promotes evaluation and synthesis of information

4. Time Management and Discipline

• Teaches effective planning and adherence to deadlines
• Develops a disciplined work ethic and organizational skills

5. In-Depth Understanding of Subject Matter

• Facilitates comprehensive knowledge of the topic
• Enhances retention and application of theoretical concepts

How to Write a Term Paper

1. choose a topic.

• Select a topic: Ensure it’s relevant to your course and interests you.
• Narrow the focus: Make sure the topic is specific enough to be manageable.

2. Conduct Research

• Gather sources: Use books, academic journals, and credible websites.
• Take notes: Organize your notes and highlight key points.
• Create a bibliography: Keep track of all sources for your references.

3. Develop a Thesis Statement

• Clear and concise: Summarize the main point or argument of your paper.
• Position: Clearly state your position or perspective on the topic.

4. Create an Outline

• Introduction: Introduce the topic and state your thesis.
• Body paragraphs: Organize the main points and supporting evidence.
• Conclusion: Summarize your findings and restate your thesis.

5. Write the First Draft

• Hook: Grab the reader’s attention.
• Background information: Provide context.
• Thesis statement: Present your main argument.
• Topic sentence: State the main idea of the paragraph.
• Evidence: Present data, quotes, and research findings.
• Analysis: Explain how the evidence supports your thesis.
• Transition: Link to the next paragraph.
• Restate the thesis: Summarize your main argument.
• Summarize main points: Recap the key points.
• Closing statement: Provide a final thought or call to action.

6. Revise and Edit

• Review content: Ensure your arguments are clear and supported by evidence.
• Check organization: Ensure your paper flows logically.
• Edit for grammar and style: Correct any grammatical errors and improve readability.

7. Format the Paper

• Follow guidelines: Use the required formatting style (APA, MLA, Chicago, etc.).
• Title page: Include the title, your name, course, instructor, and date.
• Page numbers: Ensure all pages are numbered.
• Citations: Properly cite all sources in-text and in the bibliography.

8. Proofread

• Final check: Look for any remaining errors or typos.
• Read aloud: Helps catch mistakes you might overlook.
• Peer review: Have someone else review your paper for feedback.

9. Submit the Paper

• Meet the deadline: Ensure you submit your paper on time.
• Follow submission guidelines: Submit according to your instructor’s requirements (e.g., online or printed copy).

FAQ’s

How do i choose a topic for my term paper.

Choose a topic that interests you, is relevant to your course, and has enough research material available.

What is the structure of a term paper?

A term paper typically includes an introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, conclusion, and references.

How long should a term paper be?

The length varies, but a standard term paper is usually between 8-15 pages, depending on the subject and requirements.

How do I start writing a term paper?

Begin with thorough research, create an outline, and then draft your introduction to set the context for your paper.

What is a thesis statement in a term paper?

A thesis statement is a concise summary of the main point or claim of your paper, usually placed at the end of the introduction.

How important is the introduction in a term paper?

The introduction is crucial as it sets the tone, provides background information, and presents your thesis statement.

What should be included in the literature review?

The literature review should summarize, analyze, and compare existing research relevant to your topic.

How do I cite sources in my term paper?

Use a citation style recommended by your instructor (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago) to credit the original sources of your information.

How do I present my findings in a term paper?

Present your findings clearly and logically, using tables, charts, or graphs if necessary, in the results section.

How do I write a conclusion for a term paper?

Summarize your main points, restate the significance of your findings, and suggest areas for future research.

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• Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples

Dissertation Table of Contents in Word | Instructions & Examples

Published on May 15, 2022 by Tegan George . Revised on July 18, 2023.

The table of contents is where you list the chapters and major sections of your thesis, dissertation , or research paper, alongside their page numbers. A clear and well-formatted table of contents is essential, as it demonstrates to your reader that a quality paper will follow.

The table of contents (TOC) should be placed between the abstract and the introduction . The maximum length should be two pages. Depending on the nature of your thesis , paper, or dissertation topic , there are a few formatting options you can choose from.

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Table of contents

What to include in your table of contents, what not to include in your table of contents, creating a table of contents in microsoft word, table of contents examples, updating a table of contents in microsoft word, other lists in your thesis, dissertation, or research paper, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about the table of contents.

Depending on the length of your document, you can choose between a single-level, subdivided, or multi-level table of contents.

• A single-level table of contents only includes “level 1” headings , or chapters. This is the simplest option, but it may be too broad for a long document like a dissertation.
• A subdivided table of contents includes chapters as well as “level 2” headings, or sections. These show your reader what each chapter contains.
• A multi-level table of contents also further divides sections into “level 3” headings. This option can get messy quickly, so proceed with caution. Remember your table of contents should not be longer than 2 pages. A multi-level table is often a good choice for a shorter document like a research paper .

Examples of level 1 headings are Introduction, Literature Review , Methodology , and Bibliography. Subsections of each of these would be level 2 headings, further describing the contents of each chapter or large section. Any further subsections would be level 3.

In these introductory sections, less is often more. As you decide which sections to include, narrow it down to only the most essential.

Including appendices and tables

You should include all appendices in your table of contents. Whether or not you include tables and figures depends largely on how many there are in your document.

If there are more than three figures and tables, you might consider listing them on a separate page. Otherwise, you can include each one in the table of contents.

• Theses and dissertations often have a separate list of figures and tables.
• Research papers generally don’t have a separate list of figures and tables.

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All level 1 and level 2 headings should be included in your table of contents, with level 3 headings used very sparingly.

The following things should never be included in a table of contents:

• Your acknowledgements page
• Your abstract
• The table of contents itself

The acknowledgements and abstract always precede the table of contents, so there’s no need to include them. This goes for any sections that precede the table of contents.

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, be sure to first apply the correct heading styles throughout the document, as shown below.

• Choose which headings are heading 1 and which are heading 2 (or 3)!
• For example, if all level 1 headings should be Times New Roman, 12-point font, and bold, add this formatting to the first level 1 heading.
• Highlight the level 1 heading.
• Right-click the style that says “Heading 1.”
• Select “Update Heading 1 to Match Selection.”
• Allocate the formatting for each heading throughout your document by highlighting the heading in question and clicking the style you wish to apply.

Once that’s all set, follow these steps:

• Add a title to your table of contents. Be sure to check if your citation style or university has guidelines for this.
• Place your cursor where you would like your table of contents to go.
• In the “References” section at the top, locate the Table of Contents group.
• Here, you can select which levels of headings you would like to include. You can also make manual adjustments to each level by clicking the Modify button.
• When you are ready to insert the table of contents, click “OK” and it will be automatically generated, as shown below.

The key features of a table of contents are:

• Clear headings and subheadings
• Corresponding page numbers

Check with your educational institution to see if they have any specific formatting or design requirements.

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Professional editors proofread and edit your paper by focusing on:

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Write yourself a reminder to update your table of contents as one of your final tasks before submitting your dissertation or paper. It’s normal for your text to shift a bit as you input your final edits, and it’s crucial that your page numbers correspond correctly.

It’s easy to update your page numbers automatically in Microsoft Word. Simply right-click the table of contents and select “Update Field.” You can choose either to update page numbers only or to update all information in your table of contents.

In addition to a table of contents, you might also want to include a list of figures and tables, a list of abbreviations, and a glossary in your thesis or dissertation. You can use the following guides to do so:

• List of figures and tables
• List of abbreviations

It is less common to include these lists in a research paper.

If you want to know more about AI for academic writing, AI tools, or research bias, make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples or go directly to our tools!

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All level 1 and 2 headings should be included in your table of contents . That means the titles of your chapters and the main sections within them.

The contents should also include all appendices and the lists of tables and figures, if applicable, as well as your reference list .

Do not include the acknowledgements or abstract in the table of contents.

To automatically insert a table of contents in Microsoft Word, follow these steps:

• Apply heading styles throughout the document.
• In the references section in the ribbon, locate the Table of Contents group.
• Click the arrow next to the Table of Contents icon and select Custom Table of Contents.
• Select which levels of headings you would like to include in the table of contents.

Make sure to update your table of contents if you move text or change headings. To update, simply right click and select Update Field.

The table of contents in a thesis or dissertation always goes between your abstract and your introduction .

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Home » Term Paper – Format, Examples and Writing Guide

Term Paper – Format, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Definition:

Term paper is a type of academic writing assignment that is typically assigned to students at the end of a semester or term. It is usually a research-based paper that is meant to demonstrate the student’s understanding of a particular topic, as well as their ability to analyze and synthesize information from various sources.

Term papers are usually longer than other types of academic writing assignments and can range anywhere from 5 to 20 pages or more, depending on the level of study and the specific requirements of the assignment. They often require extensive research and the use of a variety of sources, including books, articles, and other academic publications.

Term Paper Format

The format of a term paper may vary depending on the specific requirements of your professor or institution. However, a typical term paper usually consists of the following sections:

• Title page: This should include the title of your paper, your name, the course name and number, your instructor’s name, and the date.
• Abstract : This is a brief summary of your paper, usually no more than 250 words. It should provide an overview of your topic, the research question or hypothesis, your methodology, and your main findings or conclusions.
• Introduction : This section should introduce your topic and provide background information on the subject. You should also state your research question or hypothesis and explain the importance of your research.
• Literature review : This section should review the existing literature on your topic. You should summarize the key findings and arguments made by other scholars and identify any gaps in the literature that your research aims to address.
• Methodology: This section should describe the methods you used to collect and analyze your data. You should explain your research design, sampling strategy, data collection methods, and data analysis techniques.
• Results : This section should present your findings. You can use tables, graphs, and charts to illustrate your data.
• Discussion : This section should interpret your findings and explain what they mean in relation to your research question or hypothesis. You should also discuss any limitations of your study and suggest areas for future research.
• Conclusion : This section should summarize your main findings and conclusions. You should also restate the importance of your research and its implications for the field.
• References : This section should list all the sources you cited in your paper using a specific citation style (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago).
• Appendices : This section should include any additional materials that are relevant to your study but not essential to your main argument (e.g., survey questions, interview transcripts).

Structure of Term Paper

Here’s an example structure for a term paper:

I. Introduction

A. Background information on the topic

B. Thesis statement

II. Literature Review

A. Overview of current literature on the topic

B. Discussion of key themes and findings from literature

C. Identification of gaps in current literature

III. Methodology

A. Description of research design

B. Discussion of data collection methods

C. Explanation of data analysis techniques

IV. Results

A. Presentation of findings

B. Analysis and interpretation of results

C. Comparison of results with previous studies

V. Discussion

A. Summary of key findings

B. Explanation of how results address the research questions

C. Implications of results for the field

VI. Conclusion

A. Recap of key points

B. Significance of findings

C. Future directions for research

VII. References

A. List of sources cited in the paper

How to Write Term Paper

Here are some steps to help you write a term paper:

• Choose a topic: Choose a topic that interests you and is relevant to your course. If your professor has assigned a topic, make sure you understand it and clarify any doubts before you start.
• Research : Conduct research on your topic by gathering information from various sources such as books, academic journals, and online resources. Take notes and organize your information systematically.
• Create an outline : Create an outline of your term paper by arranging your ideas and information in a logical sequence. Your outline should include an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.
• Write a thesis statement: Write a clear and concise thesis statement that states the main idea of your paper. Your thesis statement should be included in your introduction.
• Write the introduction: The introduction should grab the reader’s attention, provide background information on your topic, and introduce your thesis statement.
• Write the body : The body of your paper should provide supporting evidence for your thesis statement. Use your research to provide details and examples to support your argument. Make sure to organize your ideas logically and use transition words to connect paragraphs.
• Write the conclusion : The conclusion should summarize your main points and restate your thesis statement. Avoid introducing new information in the conclusion.
• Edit and proofread: Edit and proofread your term paper carefully to ensure that it is free of errors and flows smoothly. Check for grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors.
• Format and cite your sources: Follow the formatting guidelines provided by your professor and cite your sources properly using the appropriate citation style.
• Submit your paper : Submit your paper on time and according to the instructions provided by your professor.

Term Paper Example

Here’s an example of a term paper:

Title : The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Cybersecurity

As the world becomes more digitally interconnected, cybersecurity threats are increasing in frequency and sophistication. Traditional security measures are no longer enough to protect against these threats. This paper explores the role of artificial intelligence (AI) in cybersecurity, including how AI can be used to detect and respond to threats in real-time, the challenges of implementing AI in cybersecurity, and the potential ethical implications of AI-powered security systems. The paper concludes with recommendations for organizations looking to integrate AI into their cybersecurity strategies.

Introduction :

The increasing number of cybersecurity threats in recent years has led to a growing interest in the potential of artificial intelligence (AI) to improve cybersecurity. AI has the ability to analyze vast amounts of data and identify patterns and anomalies that may indicate a security breach. Additionally, AI can automate responses to threats, allowing for faster and more effective mitigation of security incidents. However, there are also challenges associated with implementing AI in cybersecurity, such as the need for large amounts of high-quality data, the potential for AI systems to make mistakes, and the ethical considerations surrounding the use of AI in security.

Literature Review:

This section of the paper reviews existing research on the use of AI in cybersecurity. It begins by discussing the types of AI techniques used in cybersecurity, including machine learning, natural language processing, and neural networks. The literature review then explores the advantages of using AI in cybersecurity, such as its ability to detect previously unknown threats and its potential to reduce the workload of security analysts. However, the review also highlights some of the challenges associated with implementing AI in cybersecurity, such as the need for high-quality training data and the potential for AI systems to be fooled by sophisticated attacks.

Methodology :

To better understand the challenges and opportunities associated with using AI in cybersecurity, this paper conducted a survey of cybersecurity professionals working in a variety of industries. The survey included questions about the types of AI techniques used in their organizations, the challenges they faced when implementing AI in cybersecurity, and their perceptions of the ethical implications of using AI in security.

The results of the survey showed that while many organizations are interested in using AI in cybersecurity, they face several challenges when implementing these systems. These challenges include the need for high-quality training data, the potential for AI systems to be fooled by sophisticated attacks, and the difficulty of integrating AI with existing security systems. Additionally, many respondents expressed concerns about the ethical implications of using AI in security, such as the potential for AI to be biased or to make decisions that are harmful to individuals or society as a whole.

Discussion :

Based on the results of the survey and the existing literature, this paper discusses the potential benefits and risks of using AI in cybersecurity. It also provides recommendations for organizations looking to integrate AI into their security strategies, such as the need to prioritize data quality and to ensure that AI systems are transparent and accountable.

Conclusion :

While there are challenges associated with implementing AI in cybersecurity, the potential benefits of using these systems are significant. AI can help organizations detect and respond to threats more quickly and effectively, reducing the risk of security breaches. However, it is important for organizations to be aware of the potential ethical implications of using AI in security and to take steps to ensure that these systems are transparent and accountable.

References:

• Alkhaldi, S., Al-Daraiseh, A., & Lutfiyya, H. (2019). A Survey on Artificial Intelligence Techniques in Cyber Security. Journal of Information Security, 10(03), 191-207.
• Gartner. (2019). Gartner Top 10 Strategic Technology Trends for 2020. Retrieved from https://www.gartner.com/smarterwithgartner/gartner-top-10-strategic-technology-trends-for-2020/
• Kshetri, N. (2018). Blockchain’s roles in meeting key supply chain management objectives. International Journal of Information Management, 39, 80-89.
• Lipton, Z. C. (2018). The mythos of model interpretability. arXiv preprint arXiv:1606.03490.
• Schneier, B. (2019). Click Here to Kill Everybody: Security and Survival in a Hyper-Connected World. WW Norton & Company.
• Wahab, M. A., Rahman, M. S., & Islam, M. R. (2020). A Survey on AI Techniques in Cybersecurity. International Journal of Scientific & Engineering Research, 11(2), 22-27.

When to Write Term Paper

A term paper is usually a lengthy research paper that is assigned to students at the end of a term or semester. There are several situations when writing a term paper may be required, including:

• As a course requirement: In most cases, a term paper is required as part of the coursework for a particular course. It may be assigned by the instructor as a way of assessing the student’s understanding of the course material.
• To explore a specific topic : A term paper can be an excellent opportunity for students to explore a specific topic of interest in-depth. It allows them to conduct extensive research on the topic and develop their understanding of it.
• To develop critical thinking skills : Writing a term paper requires students to engage in critical thinking and analysis. It helps them to develop their ability to evaluate and interpret information, as well as to present their ideas in a clear and coherent manner.
• To prepare for future academic or professional pursuits: Writing a term paper can be an excellent way for students to prepare for future academic or professional pursuits. It can help them to develop the research and writing skills necessary for success in higher education or in a professional career.

Purpose of Term Paper

The main purposes of a term paper are:

• Demonstrate mastery of a subject: A term paper provides an opportunity for students to showcase their knowledge and understanding of a particular subject. It requires students to research and analyze the topic, and then present their findings in a clear and organized manner.
• Develop critical thinking skills: Writing a term paper requires students to think critically about their subject matter, analyzing various sources and viewpoints, and evaluating evidence to support their arguments.
• Improve writing skills : Writing a term paper helps students improve their writing skills, including organization, clarity, and coherence. It also requires them to follow specific formatting and citation guidelines, which can be valuable skills for future academic and professional endeavors.
• Contribute to academic discourse : A well-written term paper can contribute to academic discourse by presenting new insights, ideas, and arguments that add to the existing body of knowledge on a particular topic.
• Prepare for future research : Writing a term paper can help prepare students for future research, by teaching them how to conduct a literature review, evaluate sources, and formulate research questions and hypotheses. It can also help them develop research skills that they can apply in future academic or professional endeavors.

Advantages of Term Paper

There are several advantages of writing a term paper, including:

• In-depth exploration: Writing a term paper allows you to delve deeper into a specific topic, allowing you to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the subject matter.
• Improved writing skills: Writing a term paper involves extensive research, critical thinking, and the organization of ideas into a cohesive written document. As a result, writing a term paper can improve your writing skills significantly.
• Demonstration of knowledge: A well-written term paper demonstrates your knowledge and understanding of the subject matter, which can be beneficial for academic or professional purposes.
• Development of research skills : Writing a term paper requires conducting thorough research, analyzing data, and synthesizing information from various sources. This process can help you develop essential research skills that can be applied in many other areas.
• Enhancement of critical thinking : Writing a term paper encourages you to think critically, evaluate information, and develop well-supported arguments. These skills can be useful in many areas of life, including personal and professional decision-making.
• Preparation for further academic work : Writing a term paper is excellent preparation for more extensive academic projects, such as a thesis or dissertation.

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24 Free Table of Contents Templates and Examples (Word | PDF)

When working on extremely long Microsoft Word documents such as a huge report or academic paper, it most likely will extend for hundreds of pages. Due to the large nature of this document, it can be quite challenging to know exactly a page that has particular information. This can be very frustrating, and you’ll need to go over the hundreds of pages searching for the content you want. However, you don’t have to deal with this issue when working with Microsoft Word, as you can create a table of content that makes it simple to plan and navigate through the document.

Table of Contents Templates & Examples

What Is a Table of Contents?

The Table of content, or as it’s commonly referred to as the TOC, acts as the list of chapters you’ll see at the start of a book stating the document’s different sections and page numbers that these sections start. There’s a common misconception that the Table of content should only be used for huge novels, dense reports, but this is far from the truth. You can also use the Table of content for something simple as a school assignment or a daily journal. Therefore, you shouldn’t feel shy about creating a table of content any time you feel that having one is appropriate.

How to create a Table of Content

When looking to create a table of content, you need to follow a couple of steps. Fortunately, Microsoft Word makes this a lot easier for you by automatically building the TOC. After that, your work will be outlining the content and later stating the heading styles by observing basic formatting. Here are the steps you should follow when creating a table of content.

• To do this, head to Ribbon > Home > Styles . Consequently, choose the text and apply headings for every text which should be included in the TOCs.
• With help from the heading styles, you can design a hierarchy in the main chapters. For example, using Heading 1 for the new chapters or sections and subsequently making use of Heading 2 for the subsections in each particular section and Heading 3 for the smaller topics or units in them.
• Microsoft Word will then scan the document for all the text formatted as Heading 1, 2, or 3 and use these when creating the Table of content format.
• Place the TOC on the page: You should then position the cursor on the exact spot you want the Table of content to show on your Word document. This typically is at the start of your document.
• Click on the TOC command: Head over to Ribbon > References > Table of Contents and pick either of the two automatic kinds you see there. These two only differ in the heading of “Table of Contents” or “Contents” at the top.
• The TOC update is added automatically: Your document is scanned by MS Word, which then uses the heading styles in building the sections and subsections order as well as their page numbers. This is the Table of content’s skeleton, and you can work on it further to make it look appealing to the eye.
• Update the TOC anytime you want: Feel free to further update the TOC that was created automatically. Update the TOC by changing the styles, changing the text, or rearranging the content. You must also update the Table of Content after making changes to the content affecting the page numbers. When updating the TOC created automatically, you should click on Reference > Update Table.
• You can also select to Update entire Table or Update page numbers only when looking to update the text and page numbers.
• Manually create the TOC: With the automatic method of creating the TOC so effortless, why bother creating one manually? There are two reasons why this may be so including;
• The document doesn’t have any styles that Microsoft Word can identify
• The document has numerous varieties, thereby making an automatic table of content challenges.

When creating a manual TOC, head to Reference > Table of Contents, > Click on the dropdown to show the option for the Manual Table.

The Table of Content on MS Word is usually inserted with placeholders making it easier to edit. You can adjust this using your colors and fonts. In addition, remember to add the page numbers manually.

You can’t automatically update the Table of Contents when it’s created manually. However, you shouldn’t settle for this basic TOC created by Microsoft Word. Instead, you can alter the TOC and even build a personalized TOC by yourself.

How to customize the Table of Contents

Do you want to give your Table of Contents a customized look? If so, here are the steps you need to follow.

• Select A Different Format for Your Table of Content. It’s possible to change the whole Table by simply selecting a different format. To do this, head to the General section and then expand the Formats dropdown and select the appearance.
• Change How Items on The Table of Content Look. The style definitions usually determine the final look of your Table of Content. You can also change the TOC’s overall appearance by making custom styles for the headings. These improved styles can be saved together with in-built ones and implemented throughout the document to give it a consistent appearance.

Here are the steps to follow when doing this;

• Click on Modify: If the Modify button has been grayed out, adjust the Formats to From Template.
• In the Styles list: Click on the level you’re hoping to change and consequently click on Modify . You’ll see TOC1, which usually corresponds to your document’s heading level 1, TOC2 to heading 2, TOC3 to heading level 3, and the same is replicated across the different TOCs and headings.
• You can alter the color or font by going to the Modify Style dialog box. You can also put in place other formatting changes such as text indentation, and after that, click OK.
• Before clicking OK, there’s the option to choose if the style changes should be applied only to the current document or across every other future document. To save this for future use, go to Add to Styles gallery and click on the checkbox.
• Change The Style Headings Level Being Displayed. You can include major sections or itemize the Table of Contents. Using the Show levels number, you can adjust the number of levels shown on the TOC. The “Levels” refers to the headings style applied to the different sections. For example, H1, H2, H3, H4, H5, and so on. By setting it on 2, the Heading 2 style is shown, or every text that’s got the Heading 1 style.
• Add or Change The Dot Leaders In The Table of Content. The dots or lines connecting the items showing on the index to page numbers are referred to as dot leaders. These leader lines are stated in different style guides as vital sections of thesis documents. In the TOC dialog box, click the Tab leader list’s dropdown and choose the dotted line option. You can also pick the leader line that you wish or choose “none” to take it out from the Table of Content.
• Add A Non-Heading Style. After inserting an automatic Table of Content, Microsoft Word doesn’t include a non-heading style. This is because Word, by default, only adds headings 1 to 9 and then provides techniques of adding another style created in the index. For instance, if you want to add a different heading, “An In-Depth Guide,” at the Table of Content and content top. To do this, click on the Options button in the TOC dialog box, and a screen will pop up. This will display the styles being used only to the Table of Content levels. These are typically three styles, Heading 1, Heading 2, and Heading 3, and they’re charted as levels 1, 2, and 3. Head down to the box until you see Title, which doesn’t have a mapped Table of Content level. To map the Title, enter one at the Table of the Content top level. Consequently, click twice on OK to leave the dialogs. Word will then request you to replace these contents, and you should click Yes for the TOC to be replaced.
• Make A Clickable TOC. In today’s digital age, it’s expected that you create a hyperlinked TOC as it makes navigation a lot quicker. In addition, it’s a condition when submitting a dissertation or thesis. To add these hyperlinks, you should click the checkbox Use hyperlinks instead of page numbers. In addition, make sure to uncheck the Show page numbers box when looking only to use hyperlinks.
• Put A Simple Border Surrounding the TOC. Using the Microsft Word feature Shapes, add a border around your Table of Contents. Set Shape Fill to “No Fill” and then use Format Shape or add Shape Styles when designing the pseudo-border surrounding the Table.

Final Thoughts

The Table of Content helps ensure your large documents be it a thesis or dissertation, are a lot easier to navigate when searching for content. In this guide, you’ve been taken through the steps to follow when a TOC. And if you didn’t know how to do this, reading this guide has no doubt provided you with great insights.

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Table of Contents: Guidelines for an A+ Dissertation

• Icon Calendar 19 June 2024
• Icon Page 984 words
• Icon Clock 6 min read

Rules that guide academic writing are specific to each paper format. However, some rules apply to all styles – APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard. Basically, one of these rules is the inclusion of a table of contents (TOC) in an academic text, particularly long ones, like theses, dissertations, and research papers. Before starting a TOC, students or researchers should observe some practices regardless of different paper formats. Moreover, the process includes putting a particular TOC on a new page after the title page, numbering the first-level and corresponding second-level headings, and indicating the page number of each entry. Hence, scholars need to learn how to write a good table of contents in APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard styles.

General Guidelines

When organizing academic texts, such as theses, dissertations, and other research papers, students observe academic writing rules as applicable. Generally, the different paper formats – APA, MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard – have specific standards that students must follow strictly. In this case, one of the rules is the inclusion of a table of contents (TOC) in the document. By definition, a TOC is a roadmap that scholars provide in their composition, outlining each portion of a paper. In other words, it enables readers to locate specific information in documents or revisit favorite parts within completed texts. To make a good table of contents, writers ensure it is accurate, consistently formatted, clearly organized with proper headings and subheadings, and includes correct page numbers for all major sections and subsections. Moreover, this part of academic papers provides readers with a preview of the document’s text.

What Is a Table of Contents and Its Purpose

According to its definition, a table of contents (TOC) is a structured list that can be found at the beginning of books, reports, or other documents and provides key details on their chapters, sections, and major topics, along with their corresponding page numbers. The main purpose of writing a table of contents is to provide a clear and organized overview of a document’s text and help readers to understand its organization and flow of a material, making it easy to navigate (Heard, 2022). In this case, writers place their table of contents immediately after the title page and acknowledgments but before the main body of an entire work. Moreover, in lengthy or complex compositions, such as essays, research papers, theses, or dissertations, scholars often need to reference only specific information without reading them (Lewis et al., 2021). To achieve this purpose, they review a TOC page of a particular work under analysis and efficiently access the parts they need. Overall, a well-designed table of contents significantly improves the reader’s experience by providing a valid roadmap to a particular document’s text (Stadtlander, 2022). Besides, a dissertation table of contents should include all major sections, such as the introduction, literature review, methodology, results, discussion, conclusion, references, and appendices, along with their respective subsections and corresponding page numbers. In turn, here is an example template for writing a dissertation table of contents:

Difference Between a Table of Contents and an Outline

In essence, a TOC is a description of first-level headings (topics) and second-level headings (subtopics) within the paper’s body. For a longer document, writers may also include third-level titles to make the text good to read. To create a table of contents in Word, writers use the “References” tab to select “Table of Contents” and choose a style, ensuring that their document’s headings are formatted with the appropriate heading styles. Ideally, the length of papers determines the depth that authors go into detailing their writing in TOCs. For example, popular table of contents designs include hierarchical lists with indented subsections, dot leaders connecting titles to page numbers, and clear, consistent formatting with bold or italicized headings to distinguish different levels (Fitzpatrick, 2021). Basically, this feature means that shorter texts may not require third-level headings. In contrast, an essay outline is a summary of the paper’s main ideas with a hierarchical or logical structuring of the text. Unlike a TOC that only lists headings and subheadings, outlines capture these headings and then describe a written composition briefly under each one. As such, an outline provides a more in-depth summary of essay papers compared to a TOC.

• Easing a Document Navigation: Allows readers to quickly locate specific sections or chapters without having to search through an entire work.
• Providing an Overview: Offers a clear and structured outline of a paper’s text, helping readers understand the scope and organization at first glance.
• Improving Readability: Breaks down a written document into manageable sections, helping readers to follow and comprehend its content.
• Promoting Easy Reference: Enables readers to reference specific parts of a document easily, which is particularly useful for lengthy works, like dissertations, reports, or manuals.
• Making a Professional Presentation: Adds a level of professionalism and polish to a completed work, demonstrating attention to detail and careful organization.
• Aiding in Document Structuring: Helps writers to organize their thoughts and structure their papers logically, ensuring a coherent flow of information.
• Saving Time: Saves readers time by providing direct access to the sections they are interested in, improving overall efficiency.
• Supporting Academic and Technical Standards: Meets the requirements of academic and technical writing standards, which often mandate a TOC for comprehensive documents.
• Facilitating Review and Editing: Assists reviewers and editors in navigating a completed paper quickly, making the review and editing process more efficient.
• Enhancing Accessibility: Makes an entire document more accessible to a wider audience, including those who may need to find information quickly for research or reference purposes.

General Format

How to Write a Table of Contents in APA

When writing a TOC in the APA format, writers should capture all the headings in the paper – first-level, second-level, and even third-level. Besides this information, they should also include an abstract, references, and appendices. The correct way to format a table of contents is to list all main sections and subsections in a logical order, use clear and consistent headings, indent subsections, align page numbers to the right with dot leaders connecting the titles to them, and ensure it matches the overall document style and layout (Lang, 2017). Notably, while a TOC in the APA style has an abstract, this section is not necessary for the other formats, like MLA, Chicago/Turabian, and Harvard. Hence, an example of a TOC written in APA format is indicated below:

How to Write a Table of Contents in MLA

Unlike papers written in the APA style, MLA papers do not require a table of contents unless they are long enough. In this case, documents, like theses, dissertations, and books organized in the MLA format should have a TOC. For example, a table of contents in a book is a list of the chapters and major sections, along with their corresponding page numbers, providing an organized overview of its structure and text (Silvia, 2015). Even where a TOC is necessary, there is no specific method that a writer should use when writing it, and its structure is left to the writer’s discretion. To write a table of contents, writers list the main sections and subsections of their documents in the order they appear, using consistent formatting and including corresponding page numbers for each entry. However, when they have to include a TOC in their compositions, the information they capture should be much more than what would appear in the APA paper. Hence, an example of writing a TOC in MLA format is:

To create a good table of contents, writers ensure it is well-organized, accurately lists all sections and subsections with corresponding page numbers, and is formatted consistently for clarity and ease of navigation. In the case of writing a research paper, an example of an MLA TOC should be:

How to Write a Table of Contents in Chicago/Turabian

Like the MLA style, a Chicago/Turabian paper does not require writing a table of contents unless it is long enough. When a TOC is necessary, writers should capitalize on major headings. In this case, authors do not need to add a row of periods (. . . . . . . .) between the heading entry and the page number. Writers should use a table of contents format that lists all main sections and subsections in proper order, with clear headings, correct indentation for hierarchy, dot leaders connecting titles to right-aligned page numbers, and consistent formatting throughout (Stadtlander, 2022). Then, the arrangement of the text should start with the first-level heading, then the second-level heading, and, finally, the third-level title, just like in the APA paper. In turn, all the information that precedes the introduction part should have lowercase Roman numerals. Besides, the row of periods is only used for major headings. Therefore, an example of writing a TOC in Chicago/Turabian format is:

How to Write a Table of Contents in Harvard

Like in the other formats, writing a table of contents in the Harvard style is captured by having the title “Table of Contents” at the center of the page, in the first line. Basically, it comes after the title page and captures all the sections and subsections of Harvard papers. In other words, writers must indicate first-level headings in a numbered list. For example, to create a good table of contents, writers list the document’s main sections and subsections in the order they appear, apply consistent formatting, and include corresponding page numbers for each heading (Heard, 2022). Further on, scholars should align titles to the left side and capitalize them. In turn, if there is a need to show second-level headings, authors should list them under corresponding first-level headings by using bullet points. However, it is essential for students not to disrupt the numbering of first-level headings. Besides, writers should align second-level headings to the left side and indent them by half an inch and capitalize on a choosen piece. As a result, an example of writing a TOC in Harvard format should appear as below:

Common Mistakes

• Inconsistent Formatting: Using different fonts, sizes, or styles within a single TOC.
• Incorrect Page Numbers: Page numbers in a TOC do not match actual text pages.
• Missing Sections: Omitting important sections or subsections from a TOC.
• Overly Detailed Entries: Including too much detail makes a particular TOC hard to read.
• Lack of Subheadings: Not breaking down major sections into subheadings for clarity.
• Unclear Section Titles: Using vague or unclear titles does not reflect a completed text accurately.
• Improper Indentation: Incorrectly indenting headings and subheadings makes their hierarchy unclear.
• Inconsistent Capitalization: Using different capitalization styles for headings and subheadings.
• Failure to Update: Not updating a completed TOC after making changes to some sections of a final work.
• Missing List of Figures/Tables: Not including lists for figures and tables if they are present in a research paper.
• Ignoring Styles/Templates: Not using document styles or templates for doing a good TOC leads to inconsistency.
• Overly Long Titles: Including overly long section titles makes an entire TOC difficult to read.

Any TOC is an essential component of any academic paper, particularly for long documents, like theses, dissertations, and research papers. When students are writing a TOC, they should be careful to follow the applicable format’s rules and standards. Regardless of the format, writers should master the following tips when doing a TOC page:

• Write a TOC on a new page after the title page.
• Indicate first-level headings of the document in a numbered list.
• Indicate second-level headings under the corresponding first-level heading.
• If applicable, indicate third-level headings under the corresponding second-level heading.
• Write a specific page number for each heading.
• Put the provided content in a two-column table.
• Title the page with “Table of Contents.”

Fitzpatrick, R. (2021). Write useful books: A modern approach to designing and refining recommendable nonfiction . Useful Books Ltd.

Heard, S. B. (2022). The scientist’s guide to writing: How to write more easily and effectively throughout your scientific career . Princeton University Press.

Lang, T. A. (2017). Writing a better research article. Journal of Public Health and Emergency , 1 , 1–13. https://doi.org/10.21037/jphe.2017.11.06

Lewis, K. B., Graham, I. D., Boland, L., & Stacey, D. (2021). Writing a compelling integrated discussion: A guide for integrated discussions in article-based theses and dissertations. International Journal of Nursing Education Scholarship , 18 (1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1515/ijnes-2020-0057

Silvia, P. J. (2015). Write it up: Practical strategies for writing and publishing journal articles . American Psychological Association.

Stadtlander, L. (2022). Editorial: Rewriting a social science dissertation into a journal article and getting it published. Journal of Social, Behavioral, and Health Sciences , 16 (1), 94–102. https://doi.org/10.5590/jsbhs.2022.16.1.07

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• Academic essay overview
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• Citation & referencing
• Structure and sections
• APA examples overview
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• British English vs. American English
• Chicago style overview
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• College essay overview
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• Dissertation overview
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• Theories & Concepts
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• MLA style overview
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A guide to the table of contents page

Inhaltsverzeichnis

• 1 Definition: Table of Contents
• 3 Everything for Your Thesis
• 5 Create in Microsoft Word
• 6 In a Nutshell

Definition: Table of Contents

The table of contents is an organized listing of your document’s chapters, sections and, often, figures, clearly labelled by page number. Readers should be able to look at your table of contents page and understand immediately how your paper is organized, enabling them to skip to any relevant section or sub-section. The table of contents should list all front matter, main content and back matter, including the headings and page numbers of all chapters and the bibliography . A good table of contents should be easy to read, accurately formatted and completed last so that it is 100% accurate. Although you can complete a table of contents manually, many word processing tools like Microsoft Word enable you to format your table of contents automatically.

When adding the finishing touches to your dissertation, the table of contents is one of the most crucial elements. It helps the reader navigate (like a map) through your argument and topic points. Adding a table of contents is simple and it can be inserted easily after you have finished writing your paper. In this guide, we look at the do’s and don’ts of a table of contents; this will help you process and format your dissertation in a professional way.

When adding the finishing touches to your dissertation, the table of contents is one of the most crucial elements. It helps the reader navigate (like a map) through your argument and topic points. Adding a table of contents is simple and can be inserted easily after you have finished writing your paper. In this guide, we look at the do’s and don’ts of a table of contents; this will help you process and format your dissertation in a professional way.

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What is a table of contents?

A table of contents is a list, usually on a page at the beginning of a piece of academic writing , which outlines the chapters or sections names with their corresponding page numbers. In addition to chapter names, it includes bullet points of the sub-chapter headings or subsection headings. It usually comes right after the title page of a research paper.

How do you write a table of contents

To write a table of contents, you first write the title or chapter names of your research paper in chronological order. Secondly, you write the subheadings or subtitles, if you have them in your paper. After that, you write the page numbers for the corresponding headings and subheadings. You can also very easily set up a table of contents in Microsoft Word.

Where do you put a table of contents?

The table of contents is found on a page right at the beginning of an academic writing project. It comes specifically after the title page and acknowledgements, but before the introductory page of a writing project. This position at the beginning of an academic piece of writing is universal for all academic projects.

What to include in a table of contents?

A sample table of contents includes the title of the paper at the very top, followed by the chapter names and subtitles in chronological order. At the end of each line, is the page number of the corresponding headings. Examples of chapter names can be: executive summary,  introduction, project description, marketing plan, summary and conclusion. The abstract and acknowledgments are usually not included in the table of contents, however this could depend on the formatting that is required by your institution. Scroll down to see some examples.

How important is a table of contents?

A table of contents is very important at the beginning of a writing project for two important reasons. Firstly, it helps the reader easily locate contents of particular topics itemized as chapters or subtitles. Secondly, it helps the writer arrange their work and organize their thoughts so that important sections of an academic project are not left out. This has the extra effect of helping to manage the reader’s expectation of any academic essay or thesis right from the beginning.

Everything for Your Thesis

A table of contents is a crucial component of an academic thesis. Whether you’re completing a Bachelor’s or a postgraduate degree, the table of contents is a requirement for dissertation submissions. As a rule of thumb, your table of contents will usually come after your title page , abstract, acknowledgement or preface. Although it’s not necessary to include a reference to this front matter in your table of contents, different universities have different policies and guidelines.

Although the table of contents is best completed after you have finished your thesis, it’s a good idea to draw up a mock table of contents in the early stages of writing. This allows you to formulate a structure and think through your topic and how you are going to research, answer and make your argument. Think of this as a form of “reverse engineering”. Knowing how your chapters are going to be ordered and what topics or research questions are included in each will help immensely when it comes to your writing.

The table of contents is not just an academic formality, it allows your examiner to quickly get a feel for your topic and understand how your dissertation will be presented. An unclear or sloppy table of contents may even have an adverse effect on your grade because the dissertation is difficult to follow.

Examiners are readers, after all, and a dissertation is an exercise in producing an argument. A clear table of contents will give both a good impression and provide an accurate roadmap to make the examiner’s job easier and your argument more persuasive.

Your table of contents section will come after your acknowledgements and before your introduction. It includes a list of all your headers and their respective pages and will also contain a sub-section listing your tables, figures or illustrations (if you are using them). In general, your thesis can be ordered like this:

1. Title Page 2. Copyright / Statement of Originality 3. Abstract 4. Acknowledgement, Dedication and Preface (optional) 5. Table of Contents 6. List of Figures/Tables/Illustrations 7. Chapters 8. Appendices 9. Endnotes (depending on your formatting) 10. Bibliography / References

The formatting of your table of contents will depend on your academic field and thesis length. Some disciplines, like the sciences, have a methodical structure which includes recommended subheadings on methodology, data results, discussion and conclusion. Humanities subjects, on the other hand, are far more varied. Whichever discipline you are working in, you need to create an organized list of all chapters in their order of appearance, with chapter subheadings clearly labelled.

Sample table of contents for a short dissertation:

Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ii Acknowledgements ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. iii Dedication ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. iv List of Tables ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. x List of Figures ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. xi Chapter 1: Introduction ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 1 Chapter 2: Literature Survey ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 13 Chapter 3: Methodology ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 42 Chapter 4: Analysis ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 100 Chapter 5: Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 129 Appendices ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 169 References ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 172

When producing a more significant and longer dissertation, say for a Master’s degree or even a PhD, your chapter descriptions should contain all subheadings. These are listed with the chapter number, followed by a decimal point and the subheading number.

Sample table of contents for a PhD dissertation:

Chapter 1 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Literature Review 1.3 Data 1.4 Findings 1.5 Conclusion

Chapter 2, and so on.

The key to writing a good table of contents is consistency and accuracy. You cannot list subheadings for one chapter and forget them for another. Subheadings are not always required but they can be very helpful if you are dealing with a detailed topic. The page numbers in the table of contents must match with the respective pages in your thesis or manuscript.

What’s more, chapter titles and subheading titles must match their corresponding pages. If your first chapter is called “Chapter 1: The Beginning”, it must be written as such on both the table of contents and first chapter page. So long as you remain both accurate and consistent, your table of contents will be perfect.

Create in Microsoft Word

Fortunately, the days of manually writing a contents page are over. You can still produce a contents page manually with Microsoft Word, but consider using their automatic feature to guarantee accuracy and save time.

To produce an automatically-generated table of contents, you must first work with heading styles. These can be found in the home tab under “Styles”. Select top-level headings (your chapter titles) and apply the Heading 1 style. This ensures that they will be formatted as main headings. Second-level headings (subheadings) can be applied with the Heading 2 style. This will place them underneath and within each main heading.

Once you have worked with heading styles, simply click on the “References” tab and select “Table of Contents”. This option will allow you to automatically produce a page with accurate page links to your document. To customize the format and style applied to your table of contents, select “Custom Table of Contents” at the bottom of the tab. Remember to update your table of contents by selecting the table and choosing “Update” from the drop-down menu. This will ensure that your headings, sub-headings and page numbers all add up.

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In a Nutshell

• The table of contents is a vital part of any academic thesis or extensive paper.
• It is an accurate map of your manuscript’s content – its headings, sub-headings and page numbers.
• It shows how you have divided your thesis into more manageable chunks through the use of chapters.
• By breaking apart your thesis into discrete sections, you make your argument both more persuasive and easier to follow.
• What’s more, your contents page should produce an accurate map of your thesis’ references, bibliography, illustrations and figures.
• It is an accurate map of the chapters, references, bibliography, illustrations and figures in your thesis.

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How to Write a Table of Contents: Basic, MLA, and APA Styles

Usually, tables of contents are used in documents that consist of several chapters or sections. Creating a table of contents may seem to be a simple task, however, different formatting styles and rules regarding spacing may cause some problems if students are not familiar with these standards.

College-Writers.com decided to help you prepare a good table of contents by explaining the features of the most common styles: MLA and APA. The MLA style is popular in literature, while APA is used in social sciences. If there’s no particular style specified by your professor, you may need to create a basic table of contents.

Basic Table of Contents

First, let’s see what a basic table of contents looks like. This table should demonstrate how your paper is organized, and what topics are addressed in it. You should include every section of your paper and provide a corresponding page number. If your work has big sections, you can benefit from making descriptive headlines so that your audience could easily find the necessary information on any specific subtopic. For example, if this article was several pages long, its table of contents would look like this:

Introduction……………………………………………………….1

Basic Table of Contents…………………………………………3

APA Style Table of Contents……………………………………5

MLA Style Table of Contents……………………………………6

Entries in your table of content should be written using capital letters, just like headlines in your paper. To make your table easy to read, line up page numbers. You can do it manually or use various programs that can format your text documents automatically. These programs can also help with spacing.

APA Table of Contents

You may or may not use the APA style in your papers, depending on your field of study, the type of your paper, and requirements of your school. Literature reviews traditionally don’t have a table of contents, having only a standard title page. In this case, you should also include an introduction and a reference list. If your paper has several major sections, its table of contents may look like this:

Abstract………………………………………………………….2

Introduction…………………………………………………….5

Method…………………………………………………………..6

Results……………………………………………………………9

Tables……………………………………………………………11

References………………………………………………………14

The title shouldn’t be underlined or written in bold font. An APA table of contents should also include an abstract and a list of references. Obviously, you should also follow the general guidelines of the APA style. When creating a table of contents according to the APA style, you may also benefit from making descriptive headlines.

MLA Table of Contents

Your MLA style paper may have a table of contents if it’s long enough. The MLA format doesn’t have any strict requirements regarding breaking up the text so you can approach this issue as you like, taking into account the type of content. Here’s a list of suggested sections for an MLA paper:

• Acknowledgments;
• Introduction;
• Body (three parts);
• Conclusion (Summary);
• Explanatory Notes;
• Appendices;
• Contact Organizations;
• Endnotes (if you don’t use citations in parentheses or footnotes);
• Bibliography;

You should also include a title page, however, there’s no need to number it, unless your title is on the main page of your paper. Don’t forget that the MLA style also requires you to provide a list of tables and illustrations. Here’s an example of a table of contents written according to the MLA format:

Introduction……………………………………………………..2

Arts………………………………………………………………..5

Government……………………………………………………..8

Works Cited……………………………………………………..10

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How to Write a Table of Contents

Last Updated: June 16, 2024 Fact Checked

This article was co-authored by Stephanie Wong Ken, MFA . Stephanie Wong Ken is a writer based in Canada. Stephanie's writing has appeared in Joyland, Catapult, Pithead Chapel, Cosmonaut's Avenue, and other publications. She holds an MFA in Fiction and Creative Writing from Portland State University. This article has been fact-checked, ensuring the accuracy of any cited facts and confirming the authority of its sources. This article has been viewed 1,055,712 times.

The Table of Contents in a document acts as a map for the reader, making it easier for them to find information in the document based on title and page number. A good Table of Contents should be organized, easy to read and simple to use. You can write a Table of Contents manually on your computer or have a word processing tool create it for you. Make sure the Table of Contents is formatted properly in your final document so it is as accurate and accessible as possible.

Writing a Table of Contents

To write a simple table of contents, create a new page in your document and type the names of the chapters or sections of your piece of writing. Then, use your word processing program to insert the page number where each section starts. If you move things around, the page number in your table of contents will automatically update.

Sample Tables of Contents

Creating the Table of Contents on a Word Processor

• The Table of Contents should be on its own page. Do not include the introduction or a dedication on the same page as the Table of Contents.

• For example, you may write down main headings like, “Introduction,” “Case Study 1,” or “Conclusion.”

• For example, under the main heading “Introduction” you may write the subheading, “Themes and Concepts.” Or under the main heading “Conclusion” you may write, “Final Analysis.”
• You can also include sub-subheadings underneath the subheadings, if applicable. For example, under the subheading “Themes and Concepts” you may have the sub-subheading, “Identity.”
• Some papers do not have subheadings at all, only main headings. If this is the case, skip this step.

• For example, if the “Introduction” section begins on page 1, you will attach “page 1” to the Introduction heading. If the “Conclusion” section begins on page 45, attach “page 45” to the Conclusion heading.

• Check that the subheadings are located underneath the correct headings, indented to the right.
• Make sure there are page numbers for the subheadings listed as well.
• You can center the content in the table using the table options if you want the content to appear a few spaces away from the lines of the table. You can also leave the content indented to the left if you'd prefer.

• You can put the title above the table or in a separate row on the top of the rest of the content.

Using a Word Processing Tool

• You should also confirm the page numbers are correct in the document. Each page should be numbered in order. Having the correct page numbers will ensure the Table of Contents is created correctly when you use the word processing tool.

• If there are subheadings in your document, label them “Heading 2.” Highlight each subheading and click on “Heading 2” in the Styles tab.
• If there are sub-subheadings in your document, label them “Heading 3.” Highlight each subheading and click on “Heading 3” in the Styles tab.
• The text and font for each main heading may change based on the settings for “Heading 1,” “Heading 2,” and “Heading 3.” You can choose your preferred text and font for each main heading so they appear as you like in the Table of Contents.

• You can choose the built-in Table of Content options, where the tool will automatically choose a font size and style for you.
• You can also go for from a list of custom Table of Contents, where you choose the font color and size based on your preferences.

Polishing the Table of Contents

• You should also check the subheadings or sub-subheadings in the Table of Contents, if applicable, to ensure they match those in the document.

• If you created the Table of Contents manually, do this by going in and adjusting the headings and/or the page numbers when they change.
• If you created the Table of Contents with a word processing tool, update it by clicking the Update option by the Table of Contents option on the Reference tab. You can side clicking on the Table of Contents and choosing “update” that way.

Community Q&A

You Might Also Like

• ↑ https://edu.gcfglobal.org/en/word-tips/how-to-create-a-table-of-contents-in-word/1/#
• ↑ https://examples.yourdictionary.com/reference/examples/table-of-content-examples.html
• ↑ http://bitesizebio.com/21549/using-word-to-write-your-thesis-making-a-table-of-contents-inserting-captions-and-cross-referencing/
• ↑ https://guides.lib.umich.edu/c.php?g=283073&p=1886010
• ↑ https://nsufl.libguides.com/c.php?g=413851&p=2820026

About This Article

To write a table of contents, open a new document and list the major headings, titles, or chapters of the project in chronological order. Next, insert subheadings or subtopics if your project has those. Fill in the page number where each heading starts, then format the content in a table with 2 columns. Place the headings and subheadings in order in the first column, then put the page numbers in the second column. Don't forget to add a "Table of Contents" title at the top of the document! To learn more about polishing your Table of Contents, read on! Did this summary help you? Yes No

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Term Paper Outline: The Main Components Of A Term Paper

• Author Sandra W.

Different courses will have different requirements for writing a term paper. Therefore, you need to look for the style guide given by your lecturer and comply with it.

However, if no specific outline or guideline has been given to you, you can follow this basic outline, which contains all the principles and elements for a proper term paper.

A term paper will have four three main sections:

• Preliminaries
• The body or Text
• Reference Page

1.0. Preliminaries In APA Format

The preliminaries refers to all the content that appears at the beginning of the paper.

These includes:

1.1. Title Page

A title page contains:

• The title of your paper
• Your name and student number
• The course name and code,
• The instructor’s name
• The due date

1.2. Abstract

An abstract is a brief summary of the main ideas of your term paper usually in about 100 to 200 words.

• The main elements of an abstract are as follows:
• A short statement of your research nature or subject
• A brief description of your general theoretical approach and research methods
• A short summary of your main arguments and research findings
• In an APA paper, the abstract should be written in a page of its own

1.3. Table of Contents

A table of contents for a term paper provides an analytical outline of your paper with the sequence of your presentation.

A table of contents for a term paper should list out:

• The heading of every division of the term paper
• The subheadings of every subsection within the divisions (if any)
• Page number for every division and subsection of the term paper

2.0. Guidelines for Writing the Body of a Term Paper

2.1. Introduction

An introduction should be an interesting opening to show the main theme and specific topics of your term paper.

The main elements that must be in the introduction include:

• A concise and complete statement of your research question or the general purpose of your term paper.
• A justification for your study  or the significance of the topic of your term paper
• A background to your research question and a review of the relevant literature on it (literature review)
• A brief statement of the sources of data, the procedure or methods of analysis (methodology)
• A preview of the organization of the paper

2.2. Literature review

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources (such as books, journal articles, and theses) related to a specific topic or research question.

The basic components of a literature review include:

• A description of the publication;
• A summary of the publication’s main points;
• A discussion of gaps in research;
• An evaluation of the publication’s contribution to the topic of the term paper.

2.3. Methods

• How did you search for information or data on the topic?
• What is your impression of the utility, relevance, or quality of the data you collected?
• What special steps did you take to select or utilize the data?

2.4. Results

• What are your findings?
• Are their problems with your findings in terms of answering the questions posed in the introduction?

2.5. Discussion

• What do your observations mean?
• Summarize the most important findings.
• What conclusions can you draw?
• How do your results fit into a broader context?

2.6. Conclusion

A conclusion should provide a firm ending of what you have discussed in the paper and, preferably, further to reach a judgment, to endorse one side of an issue, or to offer directives.

A good conclusion usually contains:

• A recapitulation of the main findings or main themes  
• Statements about the specific values or alternative insights of your paper for understanding the subject matter
• Indications of the important relevance to the current circumstance or future possibility
• Suggestions for policy in points to your findings

3.0. Guidelines for Reference Page

Different institutions have different styles of documentation. If no referencing style is requested, you should choose one and use it consistently in your paper. American Psychological Association (APA system) is the most common type of referencing system used in term papers.

Here is how to use it for various types of works:

1. Book reference

Author’s name. (Year). Title of work. Location: Publisher

2. A chapter or an article in an edited book

Author’s name. (Year). Title of chapter or article. In Editor’s name (Ed.), Title of book (page numbers). Location: Publisher.

3. Periodical (e.g., journal articles)

Author’s name. (Year). Title of article . Title of periodical , Volume Number, Page.

3. Daily newspaper report or article

Heading of the report or the article. (Year, month and date). Title of the newspaper, page.  

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How to Create a Table of Contents for Dissertation, Thesis or Paper & Examples

Table of contents

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A dissertation table of contents is a list of the chapters and sections included in a dissertation or thesis, along with their page numbers. It helps to navigate the document easily and locate specific information. Each chapter or section should be listed with its corresponding page number. The table of contents should be formatted according to the guidelines of the specific style guide being used, such as APA or MLA.

We would guess that students usually start working on the table of contents at the last minute. It is quite apparent and makes sense, as this is the list of chapters and sections with page locations. Do you think it's easy? 

From our experience, it can be quite tricky to organize everything according to APA, Chicago, or any other academic writing style. In this blog, we will discuss how to write a table of contents for a research paper , thesis or dissertation in Microsoft Word. We will create it together to guide students through the process. 

Also, here you will find examples of table of contents created by thesis writers at StudyCrumb . Let’s go!

What Is a Table of Contents: Definition

It is obvious that the table of contents (TOC) is an essential manuscript part you can’t skip. If you are dealing with a dissertation, thesis or research paper, you need to know how to build it in accordance with academic guidance. This is a detailed roadmap for your work and outlined structure you can follow for a research presentation. 

In case you are working on an essay or report, you may not include the table of contents, as it is a short academic text. But for the research paper, thesis or dissertation, table of contents is essential and required. It is possible to say the same about any Master’s project. It should be located between the dissertation abstract and introduction chapter. In most cases, it is about 2-3 pages long. 

Our expert dissertation writing service prepared a great template that can be used for your work. Make your research formatting easy with ready solutions!

Types of Table of Contents

How to choose which table of contents will fit your research paper, thesis, dissertation, or report best? Make a decision based on your work length. Some academic writing styles, such as APA paper format or MLA style , have specific formatting for this list. 

However, we will outline the most commonly used typology:

• Single-level table of contents. At this type, we use only chapters. For instance, you will have an Introduction, Literature Review, methodology, and other chapters with page numbers. It can be used for shorter research work. For long writing forms like manuscripts, it can be too broad, and you will need to go into details.
• Subdivided table of contents. The most frequently used form to organize the contents table. It will include not only chapters but also sections — a level 2 subheading for each part. It will help to be more specific about what to expect in each part of your research work.
• Table of contents with multiple levels. This is a more divided structure, including subheadings with a level 3 for each section. Quite often, those subheadings can be rewritten or deleted during the last editing. It is essential to keep them in the right order.

Before you decide which type will work best for you, let us share with you some examples of each formatting style.

Example of Table of Contents With a Single Level

Introduction: The Misinformation Roots ………..…… 3 Literature Review .....................................….....………… 10 Research Methodology and Design ……................. 24 Results.............................................................................. 28 Discussion ....................................................................... 32

Sometimes, you will need to put an extra emphasis on subsections. Check this layout to see how your subheadings can be organized.

Example of Table of Contents Page with Subdivided Levels

Introduction: Information War ............……………….. 3       Background…………………………………….………..…… 4       Current State ……………………………………...…...…… 5       Defining Research Questions………………………. 9 Literature Review………………………...……………..……... 11       The Roots of Information Warfare ………....… 11        Information Wars …………………………….………..… 14        Cyber Wars Research ........................................ 17

If you are working on a lengthy, complex paper, this outline will suit your project most. It will help readers navigate through your document by breaking it down into smaller, more manageable sections.

Multi-Level Table of Contents Page Example

Introduction……………………………………………….......……….… 3       Emergence of Climate Change ………..……....….….. 3       Key Activist Groups in Climate Change .............. 5              Greenpeace International ………..…………......... 9              European Climate Foundation …….……………. 10              WWF ……………………………………….……….............. 11        Significant Movements ……………….………....……… 13 Literature Review ……………………………………......…………. 15

What Sections Should Be Included in a Table of Contents?

To start with, the scientific table of contents should include all chapters and its subheading. It is important to choose the formatting that will give your readers a full overview of your work from the very beginning. However, there are other chapters that you may miss constructing the 2-pager table. So, let's look at all you need to include:

• Dissertation introduction
• Literature review
• Research methodology
• Results section
• Dissertation discussion
• Conclusion of a thesis
• Reference list. Mention a number of a page where you start listing your sources.
• Appendices. For instance, if you have a data set, table or figure, include it in your research appendix .

This is how the ideal structured dissertation or research paper table of contents will look like. Remember that it still should take 2 pages. You need to choose the best formatting style to manage its length.

Tables, Figures, and Appendices in TOC

While creating a table of contents in a research paper, thesis or dissertation, you will need to include appendices in each case you have them. However, the formatting and adding tables and figures can vary based on the number and citation style. If you have more than 3 tables or figures, you may decide to have all of them at the end of your project. So, add them to the table of contents. 

Figures, graphics, and diagrams in research papers, dissertations and theses should be numbered. If you use them from another source, ensure that you make a proper citation based on the chosen style guide.

Appendix in Table of Contents Example

Appendix A. Row Data Set…………………………………… 41 Appendix B. IBR Data………………………………………….… 43 Appendix C. SPSS Data………………………………………… 44

What Shouldn't Be Included in a Table of Contents?

When creating a dissertation table of contents, students want to include everything they have in a document. However, some components should not be on this page. Here is what we are talking about:

• Thesis acknowledgement
• Paper abstract
• The content list itself

Acknowledgement and abstract should be located before the content list, so there is no need to add them. You need to present a clear structure that will help your readers to navigate through the work and quickly find any requested information.

How to Create a Table of Contents for a Research Paper or Dissertation In Word?

It may look like working with this list can take a long. But we have one proposal for our users. Instead of writing a table of contents manually, create it automatically in Microsoft Word. You do not need any specific tech knowledge to do this. Let’s go through this process step-by-step and explain how to make a table of contents for a research paper or dissertation in a few clicks.

• Open Home tab and choose the style for your table of contents (ToC next).
• Apply heading 1 to your chapters, heading 2 to the subheading, and if needed heading 3 to the level 3 heading.
• Next, you are going to create a research paper or PhD dissertation table of contents. Open References and choose ToC.
• Choose the citation style for your work. For example, let’s choose APL for now. Meeting all style requirements (bold font, title formatting, numbers) is essential.
• Define the number of levels for your dissertation or thesis table of contents. In case you want to have 3 levels, choose Automatic Table 2.
• You are done! Click ok, and here is your page with listed chapters!

You see how easy it can be! Every time you make changes to your text or headings, it will be automatic.

Updating Your Table of Contents in MS Word

Table of contents of a research paper or dissertation is created, and you continue to edit your work until submission. It is common practice, and with MS Word, you can automate all the updates. 

Let’s outline this process in our step-by-step guide!

• Right-click on your ToC in a document.
• Update field section is next.
• Choose “update ToC."
• Here, you can update your entire ToC — choose an option that works the best for you!

As you may see, working with automated solutions is much easier when you write a dissertation which has manifold subsections. That is why it is better to learn how to work on MS Word with the content list meaning be able to manage it effectively.

Table of Contents Examples

From our experience, students used to think that the content list was quite a complicated part of the work. Even with automated solutions, you must be clear about what to include and how to organize formatting. To solve the problem and answer all your questions, use our research paper or dissertation contents page example. Our paper writers designed a sample table of contents to illustrate the best practices and various styles in formatting the work. 

Check our samples to find advanced options for organizing your own list.

Example of Table of Contents in Research Paper

As you can see, this contents page includes sections with different levels.

Thesis/Dissertation Table of Contents Example

Have a question about your specific case? Check samples first, as we are sure you can get almost all the answers in our guides and sample sets. 

>> Read more: APA Format Table of Contents

Tips on Creating a Table of Contents

To finalize all that we shared on creating the table of contents page, let’s go through our tips list. We outline the best advice to help you with a dissertation table of contents.

• Use automated solutions for creating a list of chapters for your report, research papers, or dissertations — it will save you time in the future.
• Be clear with the formatting style you use for the research.
• Choose the best level type of list based on the paper length.
• Update a list after making changes to the text.
• Check the page list before submitting the work.

Bottom Line on Making Table of Contents for Dissertations/ Papers

To summarize, working with a research paper, thesis or dissertation table of contents can be challenging. This article outlines how to create a table of contents in Word and how to update it appropriately. You can learn what to include in the content list, how long it can be, and where to locate it. Write your work using more than one table of contents sample we prepared for students. It is often easy to check how the same list was made for other dissertations before finalizing yours. We encourage you to learn how to create a list with pages automatically and update it. It will definitely make your academic life easier.

Not sure if your work 's quality level is enough for getting a top-notch result? We’ve got you covered! Our team of skilled academic writers is always ready to help once you ask “ write my dissertation for me !" Just select your writer, send them your requirements and get a custom study tailored to your instructions.

Joe Eckel is an expert on Dissertations writing. He makes sure that each student gets precious insights on composing A-grade academic writing.

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Table of Contents for Dissertation in 2024

Table of contents, introduction.

A dissertation could never begin with an introduction right off the bat. A table of contents in a dissertation template is imperative to guide your reader through the structure of your research.

The table of contents in a dissertation is a well-organized list of chapters, sections, and figures within your document, each heading corresponding to a page number. A good table of contents page should be accurate, simple to read, and well-formatted. The formatting of the table of contents is important to ensure a clean index that helps readers navigate your high-quality paper. It should generally be of two pages only.

Where should the Table of Contents be Placed?

Typically, within the template of a thesis or a dissertation, the table of contents is positioned prior to the introduction or the main body of chapters and right after the section devoted to acknowledgments.

How should a Table of Contents be Written?

A table of contents is written by listing out the titles or chapter names of sections within your research paper, in perfect chronological order. Subsequently, the subheadings or subtitles must also be included. Finally, the page numbers corresponding to each heading have to be placed in alignment with the headings.

Check with your university or other educational institution to determine if there are any formatting guidelines you must follow.

Generally speaking, three types of headings are included within the table of contents of a dissertation . Level one headings include the Introduction, Literature Review, Methodology, and Bibliography. The subsections of these are considered level two headings while further subsections are level three headings.

What are the Components of the Table of Contents?

The title of the paper appears at the top of a table of contents, followed by the chapter names and subtitles, all listed in chronological order. The page number of the corresponding headings is positioned at the end of each line.

Appendices and Tables

All appendices should be included in your table of contents. The number of tables and figures in your dissertation will determine their inclusion within the table of contents.

In case your dissertation has more than three figures and tables, consider placing them on a different page to list them out. Otherwise, you may include them all in the table of contents.

Why is a Table of Contents Important at all?

A table of contents is extremely important for two reasons:

• First, it allows the reader to quickly locate information on specific subjects that have been organized as chapters or subtitles.
• Secondly, the table of contents assists the writer in organizing their work and arguments to ensure that significant portions of their dissertation or thesis are not overlooked.

Tips to Write a Table of Contents:

• Among scholars and researchers who author dissertations or theses, it is a general practice to work on the table of contents after completing the main body of the study. Regardless, a mock table of contents may be added to the dissertation template early on in the writing process to develop a basic framework that will guide how you will carry out your research study.
• Note that a confusing or sloppy table of contents may result in a low score or lack of academic integrity due to the lowered readability of the dissertation.
• The structure of your table of contents will be determined by your academic field and the length of your thesis. Regardless of the discipline, you must develop an organized list of all chapters in their order of appearance, with chapter subheadings properly labeled.
• Subheadings should not be listed for one chapter and then forgotten for the next. While subheadings are not always necessary, they may be considered useful when dealing with a complex subject.
• The titles of chapters and subheadings must correspond to the titles of the relevant pages. For example, if your first chapter is titled “Chapter 1: An Introduction,” it must appear on both the table of contents and as a heading for the first chapter.

Where should a Table of Contents Page be Created?

You may create a manually generated table of contents page in Microsoft Word, but the automatic function will make your life much simpler.

What not to Include in a Table of Contents?

The table of contents generally does not include the sections devoted to acknowledgments, the abstract, or the index page itself. As the first two of these are positioned before the index page, the reader will have already viewed these pages before arriving at the table of contents.

Creating an Automatic Table of Contents on MS Word –

To draft an automatic table of contents on Microsoft Word, certain heading styles must be used consistently throughout the text.

After this has been carried out, proceed as follows:

• Include a title on your contents page. Ensure that you use the standard structure for your citation style or the instructions provided by your university/department.
• Place your cursor where you want your table of contents to appear.
• Locate the Table of Contents option in the Reference tab of the ribbon.
• Select Custom Table of Contents by clicking the arrow next to the Table of Contents icon. You can choose which levels of headers to include in the table of contents and make manual modifications to each level by clicking the Modify button.
• When you are ready to input the table of contents, click OK, and it will be generated automatically.

How does One Set Headings?

To set heading styles, follow these steps:

• Determine the type of formatting required for each heading level. For example, if all level one headings should be Times New Roman, 12 pt, and boldfaced, this style may be applied to the level one headings.
• Find the Styles option on the home tab to automate this formatting for all level one headings.
• Highlight the level one heading and then right-click the Heading 1 style.
• To match the selection, choose Update Heading 1.

Highlight the headings in question and click the styles you wish to format. Then, apply the formatting to each heading in the main body of the dissertation.

The Table of Contents is Automatically Updated

We recommend students to format and update their table of contents at the very end, before submitting or printing out their dissertation , as the alignment and arrangement of text may alter throughout the final revision process. Table of contents formatting in a dissertation must ensure preciseness and accuracy of page numbers.

You may click on the Update option on the menu that appears when you right-click the table of contents, which will update the page numbers or all information within it. We hope that this brief guide of a table of contents within the template of a dissertation provides you with further guidance on how to draft and format your dissertation’s table of contents.

-Isabell S.

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This paper is in the following e-collection/theme issue:

Published on 25.6.2024 in Vol 26 (2024)

Wearable Technologies for Detecting Burnout and Well-Being in Health Care Professionals: Scoping Review

Authors of this article:

• Milica Barac 1 * , BS   ; 
• Samantha Scaletty 1 * , BS   ; 
• Leslie C Hassett 2 , MLS   ; 
• Ashley Stillwell 3 , DO   ; 
• Paul E Croarkin 4 , DO, MS   ; 
• Mohit Chauhan 5 , MD   ; 
• Sherry Chesak 6 , PhD   ; 
• William V Bobo 5 , MD, MPH   ; 
• Arjun P Athreya 1, 4 * , MS, PhD   ; 
• Liselotte N Dyrbye 7 * , MD, MPHE  

1 Department of Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States

2 Mayo Clinic Libraries, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States

3 Department of Family Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Phoenix, AZ, United States

4 Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States

5 Department of Psychiatry and Psychology, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, United States

6 Department of Nursing, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, United States

7 Department of Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, United States

*these authors contributed equally

Corresponding Author:

Liselotte N Dyrbye, MD, MPHE

Department of Medicine

University of Colorado School of Medicine

Mail Stop C290, Fitzsimons Bldg

13001 E 17th Pl. Rm #E1347

Aurora, CO, 80045

United States

Phone: 1 303 724 4982

Email: [email protected]

Background: The occupational burnout epidemic is a growing issue, and in the United States, up to 60% of medical students, residents, physicians, and registered nurses experience symptoms. Wearable technologies may provide an opportunity to predict the onset of burnout and other forms of distress using physiological markers.

Objective: This study aims to identify physiological biomarkers of burnout, and establish what gaps are currently present in the use of wearable technologies for burnout prediction among health care professionals (HCPs).

Methods: A comprehensive search of several databases was performed on June 7, 2022. No date limits were set for the search. The databases were Ovid: MEDLINE(R), Embase, Healthstar, APA PsycInfo, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, Web of Science Core Collection via Clarivate Analytics, Scopus via Elsevier, EBSCOhost: Academic Search Premier, CINAHL with Full Text, and Business Source Premier. Studies observing anxiety, burnout, stress, and depression using a wearable device worn by an HCP were included, with HCP defined as medical students, residents, physicians, and nurses. Bias was assessed using the Newcastle Ottawa Quality Assessment Form for Cohort Studies.

Results: The initial search yielded 505 papers, from which 10 (1.95%) studies were included in this review. The majority (n=9) used wrist-worn biosensors and described observational cohort studies (n=8), with a low risk of bias. While no physiological measures were reliably associated with burnout or anxiety, step count and time in bed were associated with depressive symptoms, and heart rate and heart rate variability were associated with acute stress. Studies were limited with long-term observations (eg, ≥12 months) and large sample sizes, with limited integration of wearable data with system-level information (eg, acuity) to predict burnout. Reporting standards were also insufficient, particularly in device adherence and sampling frequency used for physiological measurements.

Conclusions: With wearables offering promise for digital health assessments of human functioning, it is possible to see wearables as a frontier for predicting burnout. Future digital health studies exploring the utility of wearable technologies for burnout prediction should address the limitations of data standardization and strategies to improve adherence and inclusivity in study participation.

Introduction

Burnout is an occupational syndrome characterized by emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and feelings of reduced personal accomplishment caused by chronic, unmitigated high levels of job-related stress [ 1 ]. Burnout is common among health care professionals (HCPs, also referred to as health care workers), impacting an estimated 35% to 54% of nurses and physicians, and between 45% and 60% of medical students and resident physicians in the United States [ 2 ]. Several studies also reveal a high prevalence of depression and anxiety in HCPs that preceded the coronavirus pandemic [ 3 - 9 ]. Data further suggests that burnout and other forms of distress have increased among HCPs as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic [ 10 - 12 ].

This is concerning because the well-being of HCPs impacts the quality of patient care and patients’ access to care. Several meta-analyses and systematic reviews have reported associations between burnout and negative impacts on the quality of care provided to patients, including increasing the risk of medical errors [ 13 ], malpractice claims [ 14 ], nosocomial infections [ 15 ], and mortality [ 16 ]. Additionally, other studies have found that HCPs who report experiencing burnout are more likely to reduce their time taking care of patients and quit, all of which negatively impact patient’s access to care and add a burden to the global health care system [ 2 ]. The impacts of burnout go beyond the workplace, as HCPs with reported burnout are at increased risk of cardiovascular diseases [ 17 , 18 ], suicidal ideation [ 13 , 19 ], substance use disorders [ 20 ], uncontrolled stress [ 21 ], car accidents [ 22 ], and quality of life [ 23 ].

Contributors of burnout in HCPs are multifactorial and complex. While most factors contributing to burnout originate from system-level factors within the work environment, some risk factors originate from the personal domain or challenges in the personal-professional interface, such as work-home conflict ( Figure 1 ). Due to the complexity of the factors involved, no model exists for predicting when an individual HCP or group of HCPs are at risk for developing burnout or other forms of distress. In response to the negative outcomes of burnout for HCPs and patients, the National Academies of Science, Engineering, and Medicine recommends health care organizations monitor (through frequent surveys) and respond to burnout. This approach is retrospective, as the time required for health care organizations to administer surveys, HCPs to complete them, and the additional time needed to analyze and interpret results all delay any response to burnout. A better approach would be a proactive one, where organizations or individual HCPs could predict and respond to high levels of job stress before the manifestation of burnout and associated personal and professional consequences result.

Previous studies and reviews suggest heart rate (HR) [ 24 ], heart rate variability (HRV) [ 24 ], sleep [ 25 ], and skin temperature [ 26 ] vary in response to stress. Additionally, sleep or fatigue also relates to the risk of burnout [ 27 ], depression [ 28 ], and other related conditions [ 29 ]. These types of data can be collected passively from wearable devices. Over the past 5 years, the adoption of wearable devices worldwide has more than doubled [ 30 ]. Therefore, data collected passively from wearable devices could potentially provide an avenue for detecting individuals at risk for high job stress, burnout, depression, and other related conditions. If predictive, such real-time information obtained passively from wearable devices could dramatically shift the current reactive paradigm to a proactive one, potentially leading to meaningful intervention before patients and HCPs experience adverse health consequences of burnout.

Previous systematic reviews suggest wearable devices may have some utility in predicting depression severity and stress levels [ 31 ]. To our knowledge, there is no review that investigates this relationship among HCPs or explores the ability of wearable devices to detect burnout risk. Hence, a scoping review was conducted to identify and summarize studies exploring associations between burnout, anxiety, depression, and stress, with data obtained from wearable devices in cohorts of HCPs.

Data Sources and Search Strategy

A comprehensive search of several databases was performed on June 7, 2022. No date limits were set for the search. The databases (and their coverage periods) were Ovid: MEDLINE (1946 to Present and Epub Ahead of Print, In-Process and Other Non-Indexed Citations and Daily), Embase (1974+), Healthstar (1966+), APA PsycInfo (1987+), Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (1991+), Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2005+), Web of Science Core Collection via Clarivate Analytics (1975+), Scopus via Elsevier (1788+), EBSCOhost: Academic Search Premier, CINAHL with Full Text (1981+), and Business Source Premier.

The search strategy was designed and conducted by a medical librarian (LCH) with input from the study’s investigators (APA and LND). Controlled vocabulary supplemented with keywords was used. The actual strategies listing all search terms used and how they are combined are available in the Multimedia Appendix 1 .

Review Strategy

The initial search yielded 505 papers. Two reviewers (MB and SS) independently identified and screened the titles and abstracts of potentially eligible papers. The inclusion criteria of the initial round of screening were as follows: the study must include a validated measure of burnout, stress, anxiety, or depression and the study must include only data from a wearable device worn by an HCP. For this work, we defined HCP as being a medical student, resident, practicing physician, or registered nurse in a hospital or outpatient clinical setting. The full-text reviews of the papers that resulted from the initial screening, data extraction, and quality assessment were also performed independently and in pairs by 2 reviewers (MB and SS). Papers were not excluded due to their calculated quality score. During this process, 475 papers were omitted because they did not satisfy the inclusion criteria (n=472) or were duplicates (n=3). After the initial screening, the full text of 30 papers was assessed for eligibility. Any disagreement was resolved by consensus with other senior reviewers (APA and LND) and the final source list was created, with senior reviewers blinded to reviews of each other and primary reviewers (MB and SS). The study selection process is illustrated in Figure 2 . Tables 1 and 2 provide descriptions of the final 10 papers published from April 2017 to December 2021 included in this review.

a HR: heart rate.

b STC: step count.

c STAI: State-Trait Anxiety Inventory.

d EDA: electrodermal activity.

e EMA: ecological momentary assessment.

f PHQ-9: Patient Health Questionnaire.

g HRV: heart rate variability.

h RHR: resting heart rate.

i RR: respiratory rate.

j Not available.

k PSS: Perceived Stress Scale.

l MBI-HSS: Maslach Burnout Inventory–Human Services Survey.

m PROMIS : Performance of the Patient-Reported Outcomes.

n SC: skin conductance.

a STAI: State-Trait Anxiety Inventory.

c HR: heart rate.

d HRV: heart rate variability.

Extraction Strategy

Data extraction was mostly completed by a single researcher (MB). Other researchers (APA and SS) helped refine data extraction and review the tables. The following information was extracted from the papers and is included in Tables 1 and 2 : sample population (size and occupation), anxiety, burnout, stress or depression assessment instrument, additional measurements used, wearable device used, measured physiological variable, study duration, primary findings, and the author-determined quality assessment score.

Quality Assessment

The methodological quality of nonrandomized or observational studies was assessed by 2 reviewers (MB and SS) using the Newcastle Ottawa Quality Assessment Form for Cohort Studies [ 42 ]. The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale is a validated scale of 8 items in 3 domains: selection, comparability, and outcome. Studies are rated from 0 to 9, with those studies rating 0-2 (poor quality), 3-5 (fair quality), and 6-9 (good or high quality). All 10 studies received a Newcastle-Ottawa Scale rating of good or high quality.

Roles of Participating Health Care Professionals

Among the 10 reviewed studies, 8 were conducted in the United States, 1 study was conducted in Portugal [ 35 ], and another one was conducted in Canada [ 36 ]. Seven studies recruited either resident physicians (postgraduate medical trainees), practicing physicians, or a combination of both, primarily within the same specialty (eg, orthopedic surgery and emergency medicine). Two studies recruited registered nurses [ 32 , 40 ] and 1 study recruited medical students [ 35 ]. Sample sizes ranged from 20 to 775 participants per study (see Table 1 ). Only 3 studies had more than 100 participants [ 32 , 33 , 40 ].

Wearable Devices, Physiological Variables Collected, and Duration of Observation

Table 1 summarizes the sample population, sample size, physiological variables collected from wearable devices, and psychometrics used in the 10 studies. The devices used, length of data collection, and primary findings are listed in Table 2 . Out of the 10 studies, 9 used wrist-worn biosensors, such as the Fitbit Charge (n=4) [ 32 , 33 , 35 , 40 ] WHOOP (n=2) [ 34 , 38 ], Basis B1 (n=1) [ 35 ], Empatica E4 (n=1) [ 40 ], and the Microsoft Smart Band 2 (n=1) [ 35 ]. Sensors embedded within wrist-worn biosensors included optical heart sensors, electrical heart sensors, accelerometers, and skin temperature sensors. The other device used was a HealthPatch, an adhesive patch with 2 ECG electrodes used to measure HR and HRV. A variety of physiological variables were collected, with sleep being the most common, measured in 7 studies. Studies ranged in length of data collection, from a single 12-hour shift to a 14-month period. Only 5 studies collected data for more than 10 weeks [ 32 - 34 , 37 , 39 ].

Methodological Wearable Data Reporting

Only 2 studies explicitly stated the sampling frequency used when processing data from the wearable device [ 33 , 39 ]. Four of the studies discussed how the data were processed; however, the level of detail varied [ 32 , 33 , 35 , 40 ]. Three of the studies indicated the cutoff values for physiological variables or explained how outliers were addressed [ 32 , 33 , 40 ]. Only 4 studies explicitly stated how much raw data were retrieved from the devices [ 32 - 34 , 36 ].

Reported Relationships Among Burnout, Depressive Symptoms, Stress, and Anxiety With Data Obtained From Wearable Devices

Of the 10 included studies, 6 included a measure of burnout ( Table 1 ) [ 34 , 36 - 40 ]. Four of these 6 studies used the Maslach Burnout Inventory–Human Services Survey (MBI-HSS) [ 43 ]. In a cross-sectional study of 114 nurses, no relationship was found between MBI-HSS score and skin conductance, a measure of autonomic nervous activity, collected through an Empatica E4, for 1 shift [ 40 ]. Another study investigated the relationship between MBI-HSS score, self-reported work hours, physical activity, and sleep, as measured by a Fitbit, in a cohort of 59 residents [ 36 ]. No relationship was found between the change in burnout score and data collected from the Fitbit over 2 weeks. In the third study, no relationship was found between MBI-HSS score and sleep, as measured by a WHOOP, over the course of 4 weeks [ 38 ]. Last, in a study of 75 medicine and psychiatry residents, no relationship was found between burnout score and sleep or activity levels, as measured by Basis B1 health-tracking device, during their first 6 months of residency [ 39 ].

Two studies measured burnout using scales other than the 22-item MBI-HSS (widely considered the gold standard) [ 34 , 37 ]. In a study of 21 orthopedic residents and surgeons, no association was found between baseline abbreviated MBI scores and WHOOP measures collected over 12 weeks [ 34 ]. The final study investigated the association between burnout, as measured by a commonly used single-item measure, and sleep and activity level, as measured by a Fitbit. In this study, of 28 emergency medicine residents, there was no association between burnout scores and sleep or activity levels over the course of the 16-week study [ 37 ].

Depressive Symptoms, Stress, and Anxiety

A 14-month study of 775 medical residents found a relationship between depressive symptoms, as measured by the 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire [ 44 ], and step count (STC) and sleep as measured by a Fitbit Charge 2 [ 33 ]. Medical residents whose depressive symptoms worsened over the period of the study had a significantly higher skew in their hourly STC distributions and spent less time in bed than those whose symptoms did not worsen. In a study of 83 medical students, Perceived Stress Scale-4 scores related to HR and HRV, were measured by a Microsoft Smartband 2, at baseline and during an examination [ 35 ].

In a 10-week study of 113 nurses led by Feng et al [ 32 ], no relationship was found between the level of anxiety, as measured by the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) [ 45 ], and wearable sensor data (eg, sleep and HR) collected using Fitbit Charge 2 smartwatch. Weenk et al [ 41 ] conducted a study of 20 surgeons and surgical residents who completed an abbreviated version of the STAI before and after performing surgery, and wore a HealthPatch. This adhesive patch calculates stress using an HR and HRV-dependent algorithm for 48 to 72 hours [ 41 ]. There was no correlation found between the STAI score and HealthPatch data.

Device Use Compliance and Experience

Seven studies reported data on participant adherence or experience with wearable devices. Chaukos et al [ 39 ] reported that 25 (40%) of their participants wore their device for more than 50% of the time for the first 3 months of the study, while another 13 (21%) participants wore the device for more than 75% of the time for the first 3 months. Other studies, such as one conducted by Sochacki et al [ 38 ] reported that of the 26 participants, 5 did not complete the minimum WHOOP compliance (4 weeks). Surgeons involved in a study by Jevsevar et al [ 34 ] reported a high percentage of device compliance at 83.2% of the total collection window, similar to the 93% compliance rate reported by Mendelsohn et al [ 36 ] and Sochacki et al [ 38 ]. Weenk et al [ 41 ] reported that 6 of 20 individuals experienced problems with their HealthPatch, similar to Marek et al [ 37 ] who reported 1 of 30 participants dropped out due to fitness tracker intolerance. Problems included connection failure (n=2), loss of skin contact (n=2), and skin irritation (n=2). Feng et al [ 32 ] noted similar compliance between day-shift participants and night-shift participants (number of recordings day-shift: mean 44.6, SD 3.1 sessions; night-shift: mean 45, SD 20.2 sessions).

Risk of Bias

A risk of bias of assessment was completed for the 8 cohort studies and 1 cross-sectional study ( Figure 3 ). While the risk of bias was generally low across the studies, none included a comparison group of participants who did not wear a device.

To our knowledge, this is the first scoping review to investigate the use of wearable technologies for the prediction of burnout, anxiety, depression, and stress in HCPs. Among the 10 studies identified, a range of wearables collected data on HR, HRV, respiratory rate, skin temperature, sleep, and activity levels from a single shift of work and up to 14 months of data collection in relatively small samples of physicians, medical students, and nurses. In these studies, no relationships were found between collected physiological data from wearables and burnout or anxiety. One study reported a relationship between STC, time in bed, and depressive symptoms, and another between HR, HRV, and acute stress (during an examination). Identified studies had methodological limitations, including short duration which limits the capture of naturalistic variations in the workplace stressors.

In this review, 3 studies measured HRV [ 34 , 35 , 41 ] and only 1 found a significant relationship between HRV and acute stress. A previous systematic review involving non-HCPs identified 2 studies demonstrating relationships between HRV and acute stress-induced conditions and 1 study demonstrating a relationship between HRV and stress levels measured by catecholamine levels [ 31 ]. This previous systematic review also identified 1 study where in a setting of laboratory-induced stress, HRV parameters related to STAI score. These studies, however, differed substantially from the ones included in this review. For example, none of them collected physiological data longer than 24 minutes, stress was induced in a laboratory setting (vs occurring naturally in a work setting), and only 1 study compared physiological data with a self-reported stress measure (ie, STAI score).

Given these early findings, further research focusing on the following elements of rigor are warranted. First, the length of observation should be long enough (at least 2 or 3 consecutive quarters of a calendar year) to allow sufficient quanta of wearable data to capture fluctuations in and chronicity of workplace stress. Studies should systematically collect data using validated instruments measuring burnout (eg, MBI-HSS [ 43 ]), depression (eg, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale [ 46 ] and Patient Health Questionnaire-9 [ 44 ]), and anxiety (eg, General Anxiety Disorder-7 [ 47 ]). Investigators may also want to consider designing cohorts comprising groups of HCPs defined by their type of medical specialty or practice location. For example, it is possible that workplace stressors, patient acuity, and job demand fluctuate between primary care and surgical specialties and between outpatient practices and hospital-based practices. Hence, the burnout biomarkers may vary between practices. Considering that burnout is defined as when job demands exceed job resources, it is possible that the workplace (eg, patient acuity and hospital bed size) and related staffing factors (eg, workload, shift length, and availability of support staff) impact physiological biomarkers collected from wearables. Hence, future studies should consider collecting organizational variables to better understand the systemic contributors of burnout. Additionally, given the era of decentralized health care practice (eg, nontraditional shift days/hours and remote care with augmented reality), studies engaging with HCPs may benefit from no-contact passive monitoring and a digital app interface for survey collection (ie, decentralized trail). Finally, there is a bioethics component to understand how wearables can be successfully integrated into workforces’ burnout management. Greater attention needs to be paid to participant engagement, including addressing comfort with wearing the device, resolving discrepancies in wearable-derived data versus self-reported data, and understanding factors that influence perceptions of fatigue but not recorded sleep [ 37 , 48 , 49 ].

The use of wearables to detect the functioning states of human beings is an active and rapidly evolving field. Several wearable-based studies have been shown to aid in the detection of mental health conditions or resilience in quality of life [ 50 ] through mindfulness practices including physical activity [ 51 ] and sleep [ 52 - 54 ] monitoring. Prior work has demonstrated that aspects of physical functioning when combined with data during the day could predict variations in aspects of QoL and mental well-being [ 55 - 58 ]. Work by Campbell et al [ 59 - 64 ] has demonstrated the ability of daily journaling, wearables, and mobile assessments to detect depressive symptoms and mental states in patients with schizophrenia. These prior efforts in the field of mental health and the work summarized in this scoping review demonstrate the promise of wearables in predicting states of one’s functioning, including burnout. However, a consensus is lacking on the best approaches to collecting, processing, and reporting physiological data, much like CONSORT (Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials) [ 65 ] for reporting randomized trials and STROBE (Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology) [ 66 ] guidelines for reporting observational studies. Standardization of variables should include the creation of a guideline for reporting the sampling frequency, device adherence, and other information regarding device parameters that impact data collection. Such standardization would assist with generalizing findings, validating predictive algorithms, informing meta-analysis, and the use of data for retraining predictive models regardless of the wearable’s make and model. Additionally, there needs to be consensus around approaches to address bioethics, privacy, and confidentiality concerns of participants [ 67 , 68 ]. Predictive technologies, informed by personal biometric or physiologic data, may help improve work conditions but could also place individuals’ privacy or perhaps even their job security at risk.

This study has limitations. Only studies that included physicians, resident physicians, medical students, and nurses and were published in English were included. Following the 2019 pandemic, physicians identifying as 2 or more races experienced the highest levels of burnout onset, according to a report by the American Medical Association [ 69 ]. Furthermore, there are known disparities in the access to, and the use of digital health technologies in underrepresented minorities [ 70 , 71 ]. Therefore, it is vital to understand the factors that cause burnout in these groups of professionals and remove barriers to access to personalized wellness technologies using wearables that may help understand and mitigate burnout. In the context of the use and access of digital health for burnout, 8 of the 10 studies reported the gender breakdown of participants, and only 1 study reported the race of their participants. With the urgent need to broaden access to digital health solutions to study and understand burnout, future efforts should (1) follow reporting guidelines (eg, set by National Institutes of Health in the Human Subjects sections) to report on participant characteristics by ethnicity, race, and gender, and (2) innovate study procedures (eg, decentralized protocols) that improve the recruitment and engagement of underrepresented minorities in digital health studies of burnout. Although we sought to include validated measures of burnout, stress, depression, and anxiety, the instruments used in the studies varied in their psychometric strengths. Finally, most studies lacked power calculations, making findings, effect sizes, or impact of dropouts difficult to interpret from the perspective of the generalizability of biomarkers.

Despite the popularity of wearable devices, only 10 studies were identified that explored relationships between physiological data and burnout, depressive symptoms, stress, or anxiety. Most of these studies had substantial methodological limitations, and nearly all reported limited data collection and processing information, participant experience with the wearable device, and device compliance. Standardizing study procedures, common data elements, and reporting of wearable data are needed to strengthen the rigor of digital health studies. Addressing these limitations will result in improvements in wearable device research, including data standardization and reporting, that will validate their use in providing early intervention for HCP wellness. Additional research is warranted to explore the potential of wearable devices, perhaps augmented with other system-level data (eg, work shift lengths and absenteeism), to predict burnout and other forms of distress, hopefully leading to meaningful action before it has an adverse impact on HCPs and patient care.

Acknowledgments

This study was partially supported by the Mayo Clinic Summer Undergraduate Research Fellowship, National Science Foundation (grant 2041339); National Institutes of Health (grant R01 NR020362); the Mayo Clinic Center for Individualized Medicine, and the Mayo Clinic Center for Clinical and Translational Science. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation or National Institutes of Health.

Authors' Contributions

APA and LND contributed equally as co-Corresponding Authors. APA may be contacted at [email protected].

Conflicts of Interest

PC has received research support from the National Institutes of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), Brain and Behavior Research Foundation, and the Mayo Clinic Foundation. PC has received research support from Pfizer, Inc. He has received equipment support from Neuronetics, Inc, and MagVenture, Inc. He received grant-in-kind supplies and genotyping from Assurex Health, Inc for an investigator-initiated study. He served as the primary investigator for a multicenter study funded by Neuronetics, Inc and a site primary investigator for a study funded by NeoSync, Inc. PC served as a paid consultant for Engrail Therapeutics, Sunovion, Procter and Gamble Company, Meta Platforms, Inc, and Myriad Neuroscience. PC is employed by the Mayo Clinic. LD is a coinventor of the Well-Being Index and its derivatives which Mayo Clinic has licensed. LD receives royalties. WB’s research has been supported by the NIMH, NINR, NSF, the Blue Gator Foundation, the Watzinger Foundation, and the Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. He has contributed chapters to UpToDate concerning the pharmacological management of patients with bipolar spectrum disorders. MCs research has been supported by NSF and the Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research.

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Abbreviations

Edited by T de Azevedo Cardoso; submitted 24.06.23; peer-reviewed by T Pipe, P Punda; comments to author 01.12.23; revised version received 01.01.24; accepted 20.03.24; published 25.06.24.

©Milica Barac, Samantha Scaletty, Leslie C Hassett, Ashley Stillwell, Paul E Croarkin, Mohit Chauhan, Sherry Chesak, William V Bobo, Arjun P Athreya, Liselotte N Dyrbye. Originally published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research (https://www.jmir.org), 25.06.2024.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work, first published in the Journal of Medical Internet Research, is properly cited. The complete bibliographic information, a link to the original publication on https://www.jmir.org/, as well as this copyright and license information must be included.

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Lupus nephritis, table of contents, about lupus nephritis, signs and symptoms, complications, ln classifications, special considerations, preparing for your appointment.

Lupus nephritis (LN) is an inflammation of the kidneys caused by systemic lupus erythematosus, often called lupus. When you have LN, your kidneys are not doing a good job removing waste from your blood or controlling the amount of fluids in your body.

Watch this short, animated video series, you will learn about:

• Lupus nephritis 
• How Lupus nephritis is diagnosed
• Treatment options
• How to manage Lupus nephritis

In its early stages, LN has very few signs of anything wrong. Some people have no specific symptoms. Kidney problems can start around the same time lupus symptoms appear and may include:

• Swelling in the hands, face, feet, belly, or around the eyes
• Weight changes – usually weight gain, but sometimes weight loss
• Feeling very tired
• Brown urine caused by blood
• Foamy urine caused by protein
• Urinating (peeing) less often than normal
• High blood pressure

A key feature of ln is proteinuria , which is HIGH levels of protein in the urine.

No one knows why some people with lupus develop LN. Your family background and ancestry, medical conditions, and environmental factors such as exposure to chemicals or pollutants may all play a role in causing the disease.

In adults with systemic lupus erythematosus:

• About 1 in 3 have LN at the time of diagnosis
• Up to 5 out of 10 will develop LN over time

Without diagnosis and treatment, LN usually gets worse over time, which can lead to kidney failure. This serious condition occurs when almost all (over 90%) of your kidney function is lost. If your kidneys fail, you will need to have dialysis or a kidney transplant to survive.

Healthcare providers diagnose LN by looking at your symptoms and medical history to see if your kidneys have been affected. They then use certain tests to confirm this.

Looking for more info about lupus nephritis?

Join our lupus community to learn more about lupus nephritis, listen to patient-provider interactions and much more.

To accurately diagnose LN, your healthcare provider(s) must follow several steps, including a physical examination, getting your medical history, and doing special tests. These tests include:

• Urine test to check for protein and blood. If protein is found, a urine albumin-creatinine ratio (uACR) test may also be needed
• eGFR (estimated glomerular filtration rate) to show how well your kidneys are filtering wastes
• Anti-phospholipids, which are specific antibodies (proteins made by your immune system to help fight off infections) that can increase the risk of blood clots and are associated with a subset of lupus that can affect various organs, including the kidneys
• Shows that a person’s immune system is producing antibodies against their own cells (a hallmark of autoimmune diseases like lupus)
• Done at least once to confirm a diagnosis of lupus
• Kidney biopsy to look at a tiny piece of the kidney under a microscope

Nephrologists (kidney doctors) confirm a diagnosis of LN with a kidney biopsy.

Once a diagnosis of LN is confirmed, it is grouped into 5 classes based on the type, location, and amount of damage within the kidney cells, as seen from the kidney biopsy. Each class describes how the disease can affect the kidneys, the risk of getting worse, and a different long-term outlook.

While there are five different classes of LN, the numbers are not used to rank the severity of the kidney damage. For example, someone with class 5 LN may not have more kidney damage than another person with class 3 LN. Your nephrologist uses the class number to determine the most appropriate treatment for your type of LN.

Most medications for LN work to prevent the overactive immune system from attacking the kidneys. Other medicines are used to keep your kidneys healthy. Treatments differ depending on the class of the disease.

The goals of treatment for lupus nephritis are to:

• Reduce inflammation in your kidneys
• Decrease immune system activity
• Block your body’s immune cells from attacking the kidneys directly or making antibodies that attack the kidneys

No matter the class, LN is usually treated with Plaquenil® (hydroxychloroquine), which helps to keep your immune system activity well-balanced. In addition, blood pressure medications, such as angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) , are often recommended, even if you don’t have high blood pressure.

Depending on your class/type of LN, your nephrologist will likely recommend a treatment plan that is right for you and will help keep your kidneys working well. These treatments can range from simple monitoring (watching and testing) to stronger medicines that help manage any symptoms and prevent more harm to your kidneys.

Common Treatment Plans According to LN Class

Classes I & II

Initial (First) Phase of Treatment

• Usually, no treatment is needed unless there is a large amount of protein in the urine (pee)
• If protein is in your pee, medicines like prednisone (a type of steroid) may be used

Follow-up Treatments

• Regularly check kidney function and the amount of protein in urine (pee)

Special Notes

• Treatments may change based on individual symptoms and how well your kidneys are working

Active Classes III, IV & V

• Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF)
• Mycophenolic acid (MPA)
• Cyclophosphamide
• Belimumab (Benlysta)
• Calcineurin inhibitors, such as voclosporin (Lupkynis), tacrolimus, or cyclosporine
• Rituximab (Class V only)
• After the first phase, MMF or MPA is usually continued
• The best follow-up treatment recommended for you will depend on what worked best during the first part of treatment.
• Azathioprine is often recommended for people who may become pregnant because it is safer to use during pregnancy

Stable Classes III, IV, & V

• Usually, the first phase of treatment includes hydroxychloroquine and/or blood pressure medications
• MMF or MPA may be recommended
• Regularly check if LN is stable
• More immune system-suppressing medications may be needed if symptoms return
• Treatment times can vary depending on how well LN is controlled and whether symptoms increase

Relapse (Symptoms return or get worse)

• Treat with the same medications that worked before
• Quickly address any signs that LN symptoms may be getting worse to prevent kidney damage.
• Check-in with your healthcare provider may have your treatments changed as needed

Living with LN means paying extra attention to your health. It’s important to know how to handle everyday issues, from what medicine to take to changes in your lifestyle. Here are some key things to remember to manage your disease best.

Lifestyle and Wellness

People with LN need to make smart lifestyle choices.  Remember, it’s never too late to make the changes to improve your overall health and wellbeing:

• Don’t smoke :   Smoking  can make your condition worse, so it’s best to avoid it.
• Keep active :  Try to stay active with  exercises  that you enjoy and that are safe for you. Talk to your healthcare provider about how to exercise safely.
• Eat well :  A nutritious and  healthy diet  is key. Eat plenty of fruits, vegetables, and whole grains. And cut back on highly processed foods, salty snacks, and sugary drinks.
• Be careful with over-the-counter (OTC) medicines and herbal/vitamin supplements :  Talk to your doctor before you take any new medicines, especially  OTC pain relievers  like ibuprofen (Motrin or Advil) or naproxen (Aleve), also known as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) that can harm your kidneys.
• Medicines like acetaminophen (Tylenol) may be safer at recommended doses, depending on your other health conditions. Also, some herbal and vitamin supplements may not be good for you. Always check with your healthcare provider before using any new medications or supplements.
• Alcohol use :  Drinking alcohol should be limited to moderate use only.
• Stay up-to-date on vaccines :  Protect yourself from infections by getting vaccinations when they are due, especially if your LN treatment has weakened your immune system.
• Tests for bone health and anemia (low iron) recommended:  Your doctor may suggest tests to check your bones and blood to catch any problems early.
• Watch your sun exposure :  Since people with LN are at a higher risk for skin cancer, you should wear sunscreen whenever you’re outside.
• Consider using birth control :  Pregnancy may be risky, so it’s important to talk to your healthcare provider when you are thinking about your reproductive plans.
• Look after your mental health :  Don’t hesitate to get help if you’re feeling stressed, depressed, or anxious. Talking to someone about your feelings can really help.

Take a quiz to test your knowledge!

Take this quick quiz to see what you know about LN

Getting ready for your doctor’s appointment is an important step in addressing how best to manage your LN. Here’s how you can prepare:

• List your symptoms: Write down any health changes or problems you’ve noticed, even if they seem small or unrelated to your kidneys.
• Medication list: Write down all your medicines, including OTC drugs, vitamins, herbal products, and supplements.
• Bring your medical history: Have information about your past health conditions and treatments ready.
• Questions for the doctor: Think about what you want to ask your health care provider and write these questions down.
• Bring someone: If possible, have a family member or friend come with you to your appointment. They can help you remember the information you hear and support you.

Questions to Ask

You may want to ask your healthcare provider some questions about LN. These questions help you understand more about your condition and what to expect:

• This helps you know how serious your condition is and what treatment might be like.
• Knowing what symptoms to look for helps you take action early if your condition worsens.
• Understanding your choices helps you decide which treatment to try and what side effects to be prepared for.
• This question helps you plan for any changes you might need to make in your routine or work.
• Knowing what to expect in the future can help you plan and feel more prepared.
• Regular check-ups can help keep track of your condition and catch any changes early.
• Sometimes, additional specialists can help you to manage your LN best.
• Small changes in your daily habits can greatly affect how you feel.
• It’s important to know when you should get help right away.
• Getting more information and support can help you deal with your condition better.

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