human resource management assignment conclusion

Write a Conclusion for Human Resource Management Assignment

• Emily Scott

The human resource management assignment topics selected by the universities test the skills of the student on how they can make judgments on a particular condition. Human resource is one of the most important parts of today’s corporate environment. It is important to get one of the best men in the section to have a better kind of service from them. The duty and liability of people need to be understood and it must be known that the service-providing organization’s reputation is in their hands. Only the best and most trustworthy people should be assigned to the task and the assigned person should remember that there is a huge responsibility lying to him. In order to keep the momentum of the workflow, the human resource management may need to take some decisions that are not only harsh but bring some enemies too. It should be noticed that the duty of the HR department is to serve the company and it should focus primarily on the benefits of the organization rather than the individuals.

Conclusion in Human Resource Management Assignments

In any assignment, it is a common thing to provide detailed data on what are the aspects that are going to be discussed. Apart from this, the methodology should be precise where the asked questions are answered. In the conclusion section of an HR management assignment, the main result is given. Hence it is necessary to be more specific than anything else. In the  conclusion of HR management assignment , the final remedy or justification is usually given. The asked questions have some points and after implementing logic and theories to them the research outcome is detailed in the conclusion section.

The conclusion should be very precise and in that section, the steps that can be taken by human resource development should be answered. Writing a conclusion is a difficult task for many people because the logical deduction is needed in the segment. The human resource management assignment topics selected by the universities test the skills of the student on how they can make judgments on a particular condition. The judgment is stated in the conclusion section and it should be responded to in a precise manner where the decision-making capability of a student like you is reflected in a vivid manner.

Writing the Conclusion

Writing the end part is not that easy because you have to remember all the aspects that have been tried to cover in the previous segment. The conclusion is nothing but a justification of what has happened where the opinion of the writer matters. It is a section where a good amount of analytical data should be given. So, most of the time it is seen that the writing of the professional writers and the students has a huge gap and that gap is the result of experience. The service providers are doing the task for a long time and in conclusion, human resource management assignment has become a piece of cake for them. The writers of Essaycorp are aware of the twists and turn and that is why they can easily take an upper hand from the students. They are aware of certain facts that are needed to be answered in the segment and their precise approach to data manipulation makes them the best to rely on in the section.

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11.1 An Introduction to Human Resource Management

• What has been the evolution of human resource management (HRM) over the years, and what is the current value it provides to an organization?

Human resource management over the years has served many purposes within an organization. From its earliest inception as a primarily compliance-type function, it has further expanded and evolved into its current state as a key driver of human capital development. In the book HR From the Outside In (Ulrich, Younger, Brockbank, Younger, 2012), the authors describe the evolution of HR work in “waves”. 1 Wave 1 focused on the administrative work of HR personnel, such as the terms and conditions of work, delivery of HR services, and regulatory compliance. This administrative side still exists in HR today, but it is often accomplished differently via technology and outsourcing solutions. The quality of HR services and HR’s credibility came from the ability to run administrative processes and solve administrative issues effectively. Wave 2 focused on the design of innovative HR practice areas such as compensation, learning, communication, and sourcing. The HR professionals in these practice areas began to interact and share with each other to build a consistent approach to human resource management. The HR credibility in Wave 2 came from the delivery of best-practice HR solutions.

Wave 3 HR, over the last 15–20 years or so, has focused on the integration of HR strategy with the overall business strategy. Human resources appropriately began to look at the business strategy to determine what HR priorities to work on and how to best use resources. HR began to be a true partner to the business, and the credibility of HR was dependent upon HR having a seat at the table when the business was having strategic discussions. In Wave 4, HR continues to be a partner to the business, but has also become a competitive practice for responding to external business conditions. HR looks outside their organizations to customers, investors, and communities to define success—in the form of customer share, investor confidence, and community reputation. HR’s credibility is thus defined in terms of its ability to support and drive these external metrics. Although each “wave” of HR’s evolution is important and must be managed effectively, it is the “outside in” perspective that allows the human resource management function to shine via the external reputation and successes of the organization.

Catching the Entrepreneurial Spirit

Human resources outsourcing—entrepreneurial ventures.

Human resources is a key function within any company, but not all companies are able to afford or justify full-time HR staff. Over the last decade, HR outsourcing has become a good business decision for many small companies whose current staff doesn’t have the bandwidth or expertise to take on the risks of employee relations issues, benefits and payroll, or HR compliance responsibilities. This has led many HR practitioners to try out their entrepreneurial skills in the areas of HR outsourcing and “fractional HR.”

Human resources outsourcing is very commonly used by smaller companies (and often large companies too) to cover such tasks as benefits and payroll management. This is an area that has been outsourced to third parties for many years. More recent is the trend to have “fractional HR” resources to help with the daily/weekly/monthly HR compliance, employee relations, and talent management issues that companies need to address. Fractional HR is a growing industry, and it has become the service offering of many entrepreneurial HR ventures. Fractional HR is essentially as it sounds—it is the offering of HR services to a company on a part-time or intermittent basis when the company may not be able to justify the cost of a full-time HR resource. An HR professional can be available onsite for a specified number of hours or days weekly or monthly, depending on the company’s needs and budget. The HR professional handles everything from HR compliance issues and training to employee issues support. Also, for companies that are keen on development of employees, the HR resource can drive the talent management processes—such as performance management, succession planning, training, and development—for companies who require more than just basic HR compliance services.

How does a business leader decide whether HR outsourcing is needed? There are generally two factors that drive a leader to consider fractional HR or HR outsourcing—time and risk. If a leader is spending too much time on HR issues and employee relations, he may decide that it is a smart tradeoff to outsource these tasks to a professional. In addition, the risk inherent in some HR issues can be very great, so the threat of having a lawsuit or feeling that the company is exposed can lead the company to seek help from a fractional HR professional.

HR entrepreneurs have taken full advantage of this important trend, which many say will likely continue as small companies grow and large companies decide to off-load HR work to third parties. Some HR companies offer fractional HR as part of their stated HR services, in addition to payroll and benefits support, compensation, and other HR programmatic support. Having a fractional HR resource in place will often illuminate the need for other HR services and program builds, which are generally supported by those same companies. Whether you are an individual HR practitioner or have a small company of HR practitioners and consultants, fractional HR and HR outsourcing can be a very viable and financially rewarding business model. It can also be very personally rewarding, as the HR professional enables smaller companies to grow and thrive, knowing that its HR compliance and processes are covered.

• What do you believe is contributing to the growth of the fractional HR and HR outsourcing trend? Do you expect this trend to continue?
• At what point should a company consider bringing on a full-time HR resource instead of using a fractional HR resource? What questions should the company ask itself?

Human resource management provides value to an organization, to a large extent, via its management of the overall employee life cycle that employees follow—from hiring and onboarding, to performance management and talent development, all the way through to transitions such as job change and promotion, to retirement and exit. Human capital is a key competitive advantage to companies, and those who utilize their human resource partners effectively to drive their human capital strategy will reap the benefits.

Human resource management includes the leadership and facilitation of the following key life cycle process areas:

• Human resources compliance
• Employee selection, hiring, and onboarding
• Performance management
• Compensation rewards and benefits
• Talent development and succession planning

Human resources is responsible for driving the strategy and policies in these areas to be in accordance with and in support of the overall business strategy. Each of these areas provides a key benefit to the organization and impacts the organization’s value proposition to its employees.

Concept Check

• How has the function of human resource management evolved over the years?
• In what way do you usually interact with human resources?

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2.2 Writing the HRM Plan

Learning objective.

• Describe the steps in the development of an HRM plan.

As addressed in Section 2.1 “Strategic Planning” , the writing of an HRM strategic plan should be based on the strategic plans of the organization and of the department. Once the strategic plan is written, the HR professional can begin work on the HR plan. This is different from the strategic plan in that it is more detailed and more focused on the short term. The six parts described here are addressed in more detail in Chapter 4 “Recruitment” , Chapter 5 “Selection” , Chapter 6 “Compensation and Benefits” , Chapter 7 “Retention and Motivation” , Chapter 8 “Training and Development” , Chapter 9 “Successful Employee Communication” , Chapter 10 “Managing Employee Performance” , and Chapter 11 “Employee Assessment” .

How Would You Handle This?

Compensation Is a Touchy Subject

As the HR manager, you have access to sensitive data, such as pay information. As you are looking at pay for each employee in the marketing department, you notice that two employees with the same job title and performing the same job are earning different amounts of money. As you dig deeper, you notice the employee who has been with the company for the least amount of time is actually getting paid more than the person with longer tenure. A brief look at the performance evaluations shows they are both star performers. You determine that two different managers hired the employees, and one manager is no longer with the organization. How would you handle this?

As you can see from this figure, the company strategic plan ties into the HRM strategic plan, and from the HRM strategic plan, the HR plan can be developed.

The six parts of the HRM plan include the following:

• Determine human resource needs. This part is heavily involved with the strategic plan. What growth or decline is expected in the organization? How will this impact your workforce? What is the economic situation? What are your forecasted sales for next year?
• Determine recruiting strategy. Once you have a plan in place, it’s necessary to write down a strategy addressing how you will recruit the right people at the right time.
• Select employees. The selection process consists of the interviewing and hiring process.
• Develop training. Based on the strategic plan, what training needs are arising? Is there new software that everyone must learn? Are there problems in handling conflict? Whatever the training topics are, the HR manager should address plans to offer training in the HRM plan.
• Determine compensation. In this aspect of the HRM plan, the manager must determine pay scales and other compensation such as health care, bonuses, and other perks.
• Appraise performance. Sets of standards need to be developed so you know how to rate the performance of your employees and continue with their development.

Each chapter of this text addresses one area of the HR plan, but the next sections provide some basic knowledge of planning for each area.

Determine Human Resource Needs

The first part of an HR plan will consist of determining how many people are needed. This step involves looking at company operations over the last year and asking a lot of questions:

• Were enough people hired?
• Did you have to scramble to hire people at the last minute?
• What are the skills your current employees possess?
• What skills do your employees need to gain to keep up with technology?
• Who is retiring soon? Do you have someone to replace them?
• What are the sales forecasts? How might this affect your hiring?

These are the questions to answer in this first step of the HR plan process. As you can imagine, this cannot be done alone. Involvement of other departments, managers, and executives should take place to obtain an accurate estimate of staffing needs for now and in the future. We discuss staffing in greater detail in Chapter 4 “Recruitment” .

Many HR managers will prepare an inventory of all current employees, which includes their educational level and abilities. This gives the HR manager the big picture on what current employees can do. It can serve as a tool to develop employees’ skills and abilities, if you know where they are currently in their development. For example, by taking an inventory, you may find out that Richard is going to retire next year, but no one in his department has been identified or trained to take over his role. Keeping the inventory helps you know where gaps might exist and allows you to plan for these gaps. This topic is addressed further in Chapter 4 “Recruitment” .

HR managers will also look closely at all job components and will analyze each job. By doing this analysis, they can get a better picture of what kinds of skills are needed to perform a job successfully. Once the HR manager has performed the needs assessment and knows exactly how many people, and in what positions and time frame they need to be hired, he or she can get to work on recruiting, which is also called a staffing plan . This is addressed further in Chapter 4 “Recruitment” .

Recruitment is an important job of the HR manager. More detail is provided in Chapter 4 “Recruitment” . Knowing how many people to hire, what skills they should possess, and hiring them when the time is right are major challenges in the area of recruiting. Hiring individuals who have not only the skills to do the job but also the attitude, personality, and fit can be the biggest challenge in recruiting. Depending on the type of job you are hiring for, you might place traditional advertisements on the web or use social networking sites as an avenue. Some companies offer bonuses to employees who refer friends. No matter where you decide to recruit, it is important to keep in mind that the recruiting process should be fair and equitable and diversity should be considered. We discuss diversity in greater detail in Chapter 3 “Diversity and Multiculturalism” .

Depending on availability and time, some companies may choose to outsource their recruiting processes. For some types of high-level positions, a head hunter will be used to recruit people nationally and internationally. A head hunter is a person who specializes in matching jobs with people, and they usually work only with high-level positions. Another option is to use an agency that specializes in hiring people for a variety of positions, including temporary and permanent positions. Some companies decide to hire temporary employees because they anticipate only a short-term need, and it can be less expensive to hire someone for only a specified period of time.

No matter how it is done, recruitment is the process of obtaining résumés of people interested in the job. In our next step, we review those résumés, interview, and select the best person for the job.

After you have reviewed résumés for a position, now is the time to work toward selecting the right person for the job. Although we discuss selection in great detail in Chapter 6 “Compensation and Benefits” , it is worth a discussion here as well. Numerous studies have been done, and while they have various results, the majority of studies say it costs an average of $45,000 to hire a new manager (Herman, 1993). While this may seem exaggerated, consider the following items that contribute to the cost:

• Time to review résumés
• Time to interview candidates
• Interview expenses for candidates
• Possible travel expenses for new hire or recruiter
• Possible relocation expenses for new hire
• Additional bookkeeping, payroll, 401(k), and so forth
• Additional record keeping for government agencies
• Increased unemployment insurance costs
• Costs related to lack of productivity while new employee gets up to speed

Because it is so expensive to hire, it is important to do it right. First, résumés are reviewed and people who closely match the right skills are selected for interviews. Many organizations perform phone interviews first so they can further narrow the field. The HR manager is generally responsible for setting up the interviews and determining the interview schedule for a particular candidate. Usually, the more senior the position is, the longer the interview process takes, even up to eight weeks (Crant, 2009). After the interviews are conducted, there may be reference checks, background checks, or testing that will need to be performed before an offer is made to the new employee. HR managers are generally responsible for this aspect. Once the applicant has met all criteria, the HR manager will offer the selected person the position. At this point, salary, benefits, and vacation time may be negotiated. Compensation is the next step in HR management.

Determine Compensation

What you decide to pay people is much more difficult than it seems. This issue is covered in greater detail in Chapter 6 “Compensation and Benefits” . Pay systems must be developed that motivate employees and embody fairness to everyone working at the organization. However, organizations cannot offer every benefit and perk because budgets always have constraints. Even governmental agencies need to be concerned with compensation as part of their HR plan. For example, in 2011, Illinois State University gave salary increases of 3 percent to all faculty, despite state budget cuts in other areas. They reasoned that the pay increase was needed because of the competitive nature of hiring and retaining faculty and staff. The university president said, “Our employees have had a very good year and hopefully this is a good shot in the arm that will keep our morale high” (Pawlowski, 2011).

Determination of compensation systems is a balancing act. Compensation should be high enough to motivate current employees and attract new ones but not so high that it breaks the budget.

Nathan Rupert – Venice Beach Tightrope Walker – CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

The process in determining the right pay for the right job can have many variables, in addition to keeping morale high. First, as we have already discussed, the organization life cycle can determine the pay strategy for the organization. The supply and demand of those skills in the market, economy, region, or area in which the business is located is a determining factor in compensation strategy. For example, a company operating in Seattle may pay higher for the same job than their division in Missoula, Montana, because the cost of living is higher in Seattle. The HR manager is always researching to ensure the pay is fair and at market value. In Chapter 6 “Compensation and Benefits” , we get into greater detail about the variety of pay systems, perks, and bonuses that can be offered. For many organizations, training is a perk. Employees can develop their skills while getting paid for it. Training is the next step in the HR planning process.

Develop Training

Once we have planned our staffing, recruited people, selected employees, and then compensated them, we want to make sure our new employees are successful. Training is covered in more detail in Chapter 8. One way we can ensure success is by training our employees in three main areas:

• Company culture. A company culture is the organization’s way of doing things. Every company does things a bit differently, and by understanding the corporate culture, the employee will be set up for success. Usually this type of training is performed at an orientation, when an employee is first hired. Topics might include how to request time off, dress codes, and processes.
• Skills needed for the job. If you work for a retail store, your employees need to know how to use the register. If you have sales staff, they need to have product knowledge to do the job. If your company uses particular software, training is needed in this area.
• Human relations skills. These are non-job-specific skills your employees need not only to do their jobs but also to make them all-around successful employees. Skills needed include communication skills and interviewing potential employees.

Perform a Performance Appraisal

The last thing an HR manager should plan is the performance appraisal. While we discuss performance appraisals in greater detail in Chapter 11 “Employee Assessment” , it is definitely worth a mention here, since it is part of the strategic plan. A performance appraisal is a method by which job performance is measured. The performance appraisal can be called many different things, such as the following:

• Employee appraisal
• Performance review
• Career development review

No matter what the name, these appraisals can be very beneficial in motivating and rewarding employees. The performance evaluation includes metrics on which the employee is measured. These metrics should be based on the job description, both of which the HR manager develops. Various types of rating systems can be used, and it’s usually up to the HR manager to develop these as well as employee evaluation forms. The HR manager also usually ensures that every manager in the organization is trained on how to fill out the evaluation forms, but more importantly, how to discuss job performance with the employee. Then the HR manager tracks the due dates of performance appraisals and sends out e-mails to those managers letting them know it is almost time to write an evaluation.

Human Resource Recall

Have you ever been given a performance evaluation? What was the process and the outcome?

Communication Is Key in Performance Evaluations

(click to see video)

Communication is imperative in any workplace, but especially when giving and receiving a performance evaluation.

Key Takeaways

• Human resource planning is a process that is part of the strategic plan. It involves addressing specific needs within the organization, based on the company’s strategic direction.
• The first step in HR planning is determining current and future human resource needs. In this step, current employees, available employees in the market, and future needs are all analyzed and developed.
• In the second step of the process, once we know how many people we will need to hire, we can begin to determine the best methods for recruiting the people we need. Sometimes an organization will use head hunters to find the best person for the job.
• After the recruiting process is finished, the HR manager will begin the selection process. This involves setting up interviews and selecting the right person for the job. This can be an expensive process, so we always want to hire the right person from the beginning.
• HR managers also need to work through compensation plans, including salary, bonus, and other benefits, such as health care. This aspect is important, since most organizations want to use compensation to attract and retain the best employees.
• The HR manager also develops training programs to ensure the people hired have the tools to be able to do their jobs successfully.
• Of the parts of HR planning, which do you think is most difficult, and why? Which would you enjoy the most, and why?
• Why is it important to plan your staffing before you start to hire people?
• What is the significance of training? Why do we need it in organizations?

Crant, J., “How Long Does an Interview Process Take?” Jobsinminneapolis.com, December 2, 2009, accessed October 28, 2010, http://www.jobsinminneapolis.com/articles/title/How-Long-Does-an-Interview-Process-Take/3500/422 .

Herman, S., Hiring Right: A Practical Guide (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1993), xv.

Pawlowski, S., “Illinois State University to Get Salary Bump,” WJBC Radio, July 11, 2011, accessed July 11, 2011, http://wjbc.com/illinois-state-university-faculty-to-get-salary-bump .

Human Resource Management Copyright © 2016 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License , except where otherwise noted.

Faculty Resources

Assignments.

The Human Resources Management course includes a series of openly licensed written assignments and discussions aligned to specific learning outcomes and chapters. If you import this course into your learning management system (Blackboard, Canvas, etc.), all of the assignments and discussions (listed in the table, below,) will automatically be loaded into your LMS assignment and discussion-board tools. They can be used as is, modified, combined with your own assignments, or removed altogether.

The assignments in this course align with the following scenario:

You are a college senior who has been selected to participate in a hybrid internship/onboarding program with an elite HR research and advisory firm. Your training consists of a combination of formal education—specifically, enrollment in this Human Resource Management course—and a rotation in support of the principals of the firm. In your rotations, you will synthesize what you’ve learned in the relevant modules to address firm or client issues, conducting additional research as necessary and developing draft deliverables as instructed by the principal consultant. The quality of your deliverables – that is, your ability to convert learning into practical insight – will largely determine whether, at the end of the internship period, you are offered a position with the firm or simply thanked for your participation.

You can view them below or throughout the course.

Rubric for Assignments

There is also a sample rubric to assist you in grading. Instructors may modify these guidelines or use their own.

Discussions

The following discussion assignments will also be preloaded (into the discussion-board tool) in your learning management system if you import the course. They can be used as is, modified, or removed. You can view them below or throughout the course.

Rubric for Discussion Posts

Answer keys for the discussion posts are available to faculty who adopt Waymaker, OHM, or Candela courses with paid support from Lumen Learning. This approach helps us protect the academic integrity of these materials by ensuring they are shared only with authorized and institution-affiliated faculty and staff.

• Assignments. Provided by : Lumen Learning. License : CC BY: Attribution
• Pencil Cup. Authored by : IconfactoryTeam. Provided by : Noun Project. Located at : https://thenounproject.com/term/pencil-cup/628840/ . License : CC BY: Attribution

Human Resource Management: Functions and Features Essay

• To find inspiration for your paper and overcome writer’s block
• As a source of information (ensure proper referencing)
• As a template for you assignment

Introduction

Distinguishing features of human resource management in ghana, human resource management theories, history of hrm in ghana, reference list.

Human Resource Management commonly known as HRM entails the use of human beings in a productive manner to achieve the organizational goals and objectives. Human resources management could be defined as a field of management that is concerned with planning, organizing and controlling the workforce in an organization.

It involves activities such as procuring, developing and maintaining workforce in an organization. The success of any business is largely dependent on the HRM due to the fact that, HRM affects the customers and the performance of the firm.

Successful organizations usually maximizes their human resources through such means as selecting employees with top talent, encouraging employees to raise issues in an open manner, encouraging teamwork, providing employees with guidelines on how to improve on their poor performance etc.

Though HRM has acquired some of the attributes of a profession, it has not yet emerged as a fully pledged profession i.e. it has not been able to achieve the global standards. This is because of several factors such as environmental factors, job attitudes, technological innovation etc. and these factors have thus made each country to adapt its own HRM practices (Dyck & Neubert, 2008, 357).

The following essay examines the distinguishing features of Human Resource Management in a developing country Ghana. The essay also examines the Human Resource Theories, history of Human Resource Management, function of Human Resource Management, distinguishing features of Human Resource

The following are the basic characteristics of Human Resource Management which are also evident in the Ghanaian human resources management; HRM supports the business strategy i.e. it helps in establishing the organizational plans, metrics and goals through the HR planning.

This is important as it allows the employees to prioritize on those Programmes that are important as far as the organization is concerned. Human resource management is all-incisive i.e. HRM covers and manages all the employees in the organization i.e. it applies to workers, supervisors, managers, top executives, and officers’ etc.

Human Resource Management is people oriented for instance, HRM focuses on individual employees and groups within the organization by enhancing human relationships. HRM aims at ensuring that the individuals carries out their tasks in an effective manner so as to realize the organizational goals.

HRM ensue that both the individual goals and the organizational goals are well met.HRM places great emphasis on the employees by empowering them i.e. it organize the employees for involvement by creating self managing work teams.

In their empowered roles, the employees are expected to look for ways to perform their jobs better and to improve organizational functioning (GRATTON, 1999, 123).

HRM is action oriented i.e. it focuses on an action rather than record keeping or procedures. It stresses on the solutions of personnel problems in order to ensure that both the organizational and personal goals are attained (Condrey, 2010, 38).

HRM is individual oriented i.e. under HRM, each employee ion the firm is regarded as unique and so, the HRM provides the employees with programs aimed at facilitating their growth and happiness (Gratton, 1999, 123).

HRM is development oriented i.e. it is concerned with developing the workers’ potential so that the employees can benefit as they work and in turn perform better so as to attain the organizational goals.

HRM usually take into consideration the interests, opportunities, capabilities of the employees and also seeks to help the employees in realizing their full potentials (Marinus, Kok & Kok,2003,23).

It perceives function i.e. HRM is present in every organization at various levels i.e. HRM is not common in one sector alone. HRM is thus equally important in government, sports, banking sector etc. also percolates all the functional areas of an organization i.e. production, finance, marketing etc. (Kumar, 2003, 4).

HRM is future oriented i.e. it helps a company to attain its future goals by ensuring that employees are well motivated and also competent.HRM thus enhances collaboration of employees in order to attain the organizational objectives (Heneman, 2002, 355).

There exist a number of theoretical perspectives of Human Resource Management among them General Systems, the Role Behavior, Institutional and Resource Dependence, Human Capital and Transaction Costs. The general system is concerned with the open and closed systems that interact with one another.

In this theoretical perspective of them the employees’ abilities and skills are deemed as inputs whereas the employees’ performance and satisfaction are considered as outputs. The role behavior perspective is concerned with the roles of individuals within an organization.

Usually, every individual is expected to behave in a certain manner to yield a positive outcome. The institutional theory is concerned with the internal as well as external influences that affect the performance of an organization.

Resource dependence theory is concerned with the relationship that exists between an organization on one hand and the organizations’ constituencies on the other hand. The theory emphasizes that this relationships is enhanced by the exchange of resources and the main source of power is the ability to control valued resources (Schuler & Jackson, 2007, 25).

The history of Human Resource Management in Ghana dates back to colonial days. Ghanaian organizations adopt Western systems of HRM, which were implemented by British colonials. The historical-political factors have been the driving force behind the Human Resource Management in Ghana.

The commercial enterprises and British colonialists introduced the Western labor practices into the country. In Ghana, the rights of workers are represented by the Trade Union Congress commonly referred to as UK. The TUC is concerned with coordinating the activities of affiliated unions and giving guidance on human resource matters.

The Trade Union Congress is usually represented on several committees and boards, which handle matters that concern the employees. The Government of Ghana has legislated trade unions to ensure that the fundamental rights of employees are safeguarded.

The Government of Ghana is has also emphasized on minimum education qualification and minimum desirable standards of performance to ensure that the human resource management in the country achieve professionalism.

The Government of Ghana has also set general and specific management policies aimed at establishing and maintaining suitable organizations that encourages cooperation. Faith-based organizations have also played an important role in Ghana’s Human Resource Management by enhancing staff retention particularly in health sector.

The Ghanaian Government has also enacted such Acts as the Industrial Relations Act that regulates the relationship between the employees and the employers. In Ghana, organizations have assumed bureaucratic forms of hierarchy and formalism.

Many organizations have adopted a centralized decision -making and therefore employees have become aware of maintaining good relationships with their employers.

However, this subordinate-superior form of relationship in Ghana has become more personalized rather than being contractual and this has implications on employee’s treatment (African Studies Association of the United Kingdom, 1979, 19).

Function of Human Resource Management in Ghana

Human resource in Ghana has been the main reason behind economic development as it helps the country to increase its productivity, eradicate economic backwardness, increase its entrepreneurship etc.

Ghana, HRM has the following roles i.e. performance and potential appraisal, training function, the compensation function, recruitment and selection function, integration function and maintenance function. Performance appraisal is among the most crucial roles of team leaders.

Performance appraisal enables the team leaders to evaluate the performance of the employees and thus to know areas that an employee requires to work on. Performance appraisal is done periodically and requires the team leader to impartially rate an employee concerning his or hare present role.

Performance appraisal plays an important role of providing a suitable database that allows the senior leadership team to make such decisions as transfers, promotions, salary increments, placements etc. Performance appraisal thus enables the senior leadership team to identify the employees’ potentials and weak areas.

This is important as it identifies the training requirements of the workers. Performance appraisal also motivates the subordinate workers by enabling them to plan their career paths. It helps in developing positive superior-subordinate relations and thereby reducing grievances. Performance appraisal helps to facilitate research in personnel management.

In Ghana, performance appraisal is done yearly and many organizations uses formal system of evaluating the performance of their employees. In Ghana the supervisor ratings plays an important role in enabling the personnel managers to make decision concerning employees’ transfers and promotions.

However, the adoption of hierarchical structures in Ghana implies that it is difficult to adopt newer modes of evaluating the employees e.g. the 360-degrees feedback (Budhwar & Debrah, 2004, 201).

The training function of Human Resource Management entails the act where employees are prepared mentally and it is usually performed far-off the normal working area. Employees are systematically trained to acquire new skills and to be able to carry out their tasks in effectively.

There are many forms of training among them executive development and career planning and development. The main objectives of employees’ training includes the following; to develop the employees so as to be able to carry out tasks of higher-grades, to rain new workers in an organization, to enhance the employees efficiency and performance standards among others.

In Ghana, the training activity of Human Resource Management has been practiced in public sector. The activity is also done in local organizations as well as multinational; organizations.

The Government of Ghana has sponsored several institutions for training the employees among them the Civil Service Training Institute, Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration etc. This World Bank, UNDP and other development agencies have also played an important role of funding the employees’ training programs in Ghana.

Private organizations in Ghana such as the Barclays Ban, Standard Bank, Ghana Airways have provided training institutions where employees are trained on refresher courses. Senior workers in most of Ghanaian organizations are usually sent abroad particularly in a situation where the multinational company has a subsidiary in Ghana (Kamoche, 2004, 127-129).

Compensation is another function of HRM and it involves providing employees with financial payments as a means of motivating them to perform their duties enthusiastically. The senior leadership team should ensure that employees are fairly and equitably remunerated for their efforts in the company.

Organizations should also carry out surveys to determine the compensation structure within an organization. Organizations are required to offer such benefits as sick leave, annual leave etc. so as to enhance working life of the workers.

Other form of compensation includes bonus payment whereby, all the permanent staff members are appraised at the end of every financial year and their contribution towards the overall success of the organization is determined.

Appropriate bonus is thus given to each employee based on his or her contribution and his or her level in the organization (Kamoche, 2004, 127-129).

In Ghana, the determination of salaries and wages is comprised of benefits, allowances and basic wages. In case of semi-skilled and unskilled workers, their basic wage is determined on Ghanaian minimum wage by the Ghana’s Tripartite Committee on Salary and Wages.

The Ghana’s Tripartite Committee on Salary and Wages considers capacity of employers to compensate his or her workers as well as the economic state before deciding on minimum wage. In Ghana, most corporations have a wage and salary structure and thus the annual increments are the ones that the trade unions negotiate due to inflation.

The starting salaries for employees are based on such aspects as initial entry points and educational qualifications. The Ghanaian society is largely dominated by males but gender discrimination does not exist as far as earnings are concerned.

Women in Ghana are more focused with feminized occupations like nursing and teaching in primary schools but they usually earns same wages as males who perform similar jobs.

Allowances and benefits have been the motivating factors among the Ghanaian employees and many organizations across Ghana offers such benefits as housing allowance, medical benefits, maternal leave, annual leave etc.(Panford,2001,47).

Recruitment and selection is the other function of Human Resource Management. This function locates and encourages applicants to submit their applications for a new job opening. There are certain factors that the senior leadership team considers before decision on the kind of recruiting source to use e.g. the firm’s reputation, job attractiveness among others.

In Ghana, many organizations usually place their advertisements in professional magazines and local newspapers for professional and managerial positions. Other modes of recruitment that are used in Ghana includes written notices around organizations a, visits to colleges and university campuses etc.

Ghana, selection interviews forms the most widely used form method of selecting employees. Other methods of selecting employees include recommendation letters and academic qualifications. However, the psychological tests, work simulations and work samples are not widely used in Ghana.

The Human Resource Managers usually makes the hiring decision in Ghana. Decisions concerning hiring managerial and professional employees are usually made by the senior management team together with the Human Resource Manager (Kamoche, 2004, 127-129).

The other function of HRM is the integration function, which entails the act of merging the goals of the workers with those of the company.

Integration in an organization is enhanced through such activities as handling the employees issues, encouraging employees to participate in decision making, resolving conflicts in a fair manner, providing the employees with counseling services as and when they requires among others.

The Ghanaian constitution have set provides regulatory framework regarding Human Resource Management so as to address such issues as HRM policies, employees rights, working environments etc. (Greene & Kirton,2010,6).

The maintenance functions of Human Resource Management. This function of HRM aims at ensuring that the employees well being is safeguarded. In Ghana, the senior leadership team in most organizational ensures that there are safe and secure working environments and this is important as it enhances the employees’ loyalty.

The senior leadership team should set up workers assistance Programmes in order to assist employees in dealing with challenges. The preference among managers and the preference among the employees as to how they wish to be managed interact with the cultural dimensions.

If management attempts to enforce culture that is unacceptable to employees, there will be a reaction such as sabotage of work etc. management should thus ensure that employee’s preferences are put into place to avoid a culture of conflicts (Singh, 2009, 30).

Challenges facing HRM in Ghana

The main challenges facing Human Resource Management in Ghana are; In Ghana, the Structural Adjustment Programs i.e. SAPs has brought about challenges for Human Resource Management in Ghana.

The Ghanaian government has over the years attempted to woo the foreign investors and this has made the Human Resource Managers to work hard in order to enhance the Human Resource Management practice as many organizations operates in an environment that is highly competitive(Hodgson & Willem, 1994,11).

Ghana is a developing country implying that there is the scope for developing HRM further is little because of inadequate expansion of Ghanaian economy. Despite the introduction of structural adjustment programs, the country has remained a rural economy that depends on export of commodities such as cocoa.

Manufacturing industries have significantly reduced over the years as a result of high rates of interest, competition from Japan and China, limited foreign exchange and lack of adequate infrastructure.

Therefore, Ghana is mainly focused on agricultural economy and any meaningful Human resource Management in Ghana is limited about large companies in service and manufacturing sectors (International Monetary Fund, 2006, 46).

In Ghana, the traditional practices and colonialism influences also affects the Human Resource Management practices. These traditional practices and colonialism influences affects decision making in organizations leading to complex situations that undermines the performance in many organizations.

The traditional practices usually conflicts with the economic rationality and this has the effect of making operating levels to be costly and ineffective. In addition, the people of Ghana have a tendency to forgive one another and this affects management concerning punishment and transgression issues.

The forgiveness behavior among the Ghanaian society extends to modern organizations implying that one is usually forgiven if he or she violates the organizational rules. The forgiveness situation poses a major challenge as far as employees’ discipline in organizations is concerned.

Therefore, a Human Resource Manager is expected to forgive a transgressor and if he or she fails to do so, then he or she may be regarded as wicked and insensitive person. Also, the Ghanaian Human Resource Managers do not invoke the disciplinary actions against workers who violate the organizational rules as they fears incurring the employees’ wrath and in turn become unpopular.

The elderly people in the society are usually accorded much respect in the Ghanaian society and this provides young Human Resource Managers with difficulties of disciplining older subordinates.

In addition, many large organizations in Ghana pay increases based on matters of seniority instead of performance or merit and this poses a challenge as far as Human Resource Management is concerned (Towers, 1996, 488).

Time-keeping is another factor that provides a challenge in Human Resource Management in Ghana. In African culture, time keeping is not much emphasized about organizational life.

Thus, most Ghanaians have time-keeping problem and lateness in workplaces is endemic. This thus provides a major challenge for the performance of organizations and Human Resource Management in particular (Towers, 1996, 493).

Another aspect that poses a challenge to Human Resource Management in Ghanaian organizational life is masculinity. In Ghana, both masculinity and feminist exists but masculinity is often emphasized as far as organizational life is concerned.

Thus, the behavior of male chauvinist is prevalent among many Ghanaian organizations and this implies that women are discouraged on taking managerial positions that are mostly held by males.

This thus makes it hard for women to advance in their careers as finding a mentor or a role model is difficult. This also implies that Human Resource Management profession in Ghana is dominated by men (Budhwar, & Debrah, 2004, 199).

In addition, the recruitment and selection of employees lacks objectivity and this affects the Human Resource planning and job analysis. Many organizations in Ghana do not consider Human Resource planning to be important.

Furthermore, the economic environments and political instability in Ghana provides a challenge about HR planning. The Human Resource training departments in Ghana do not have adequate personnel who have statistics expertise and forecasting (Heeks, 2001, 137).

In Ghana, Human Resource Management is concerned with performance and potential appraisal, training, compensation, integration, selection and recruitment and maintenance functions.

Human Resource Management in Ghana is faced with such challenges as limited economic growth, lack of objectivity in the recruitment and selection of employees, masculinity in organizational life, time keeping problems, traditional practices and colonialisms and the introduction of SAPs, which in turn leads to global competition.

In order to enhance HRM in Ghana, the Human Resource managers requires to set up such policies as unbiased recruitment and selection procedures, time keeping among others.

African Studies Association of the United Kingdom., 1979. African research & Documentation. .Michigan: The University of Michigan.

Budhwar, P.S. & Debrah, Y.A., 2004. Human Resource Management In Developing Countries . London: Routledge.

Condrey, S.E., 2010. Handbook of Human Resource Management in Government . Hoboken: John Wiley and Sons.

Dyck & Neubert, M., 2008. Management: Current Practices And New Directions . Stamford: Cengage Learning.

Gratton, L., 1999. Strategic human resource management: corporate rhetoric and human reality . Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Greene, A & Kirton, G., 2010. The Dynamics of Managing Diversity: A Critical Approach . London: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Heeks, R., 2001. Reinventing government in the information age: international practice in IT-enabled public sector reform . London: Routledge.

Heneman, R.L., 2002. Human resource management in virtual organizations : IAP.

Hodgson, H & Willem, V., 1994. Negotiating structural adjustment in Africa. Oxford: James Currey Publishers.

International Monetary Fund, 2006. Ghana: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper . Washington, D.C: International Monetary Fund.

Kamoche, K. N., 2004. Managing Human Resources In Africa. London: Routledge.

Kumar, R., 2003 Human Resource Management: Strategic Analysis Text and Cases. New Delhi: I. K. International Pvt Ltd.

Marinus, J., Kok, J. & Kok, P., 2003. Human resource management within small and medium-sized Enterprises . Hamburg: Rozenberg Publishers.

Panford, M.K., 2001. IMF -World Bank and labor’s burdens in Africa: Ghana’s experience. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group.

Schuler, R.S. & Jackson, S.E., 2007. Strategic human resource management .Hoboken: Wiley-Blackwell.

Singh, Y.K., 2009. Human Resource Manag ement. New Delhi: APH Publishing.

Towers, B., 1996. The handbook of human resource management. Hoboken: Wiley- Blackwell.

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Human Resource Management

A collective term for all formal systems to manage employees and other stakeholders within a company

What is Human Resource Management?

Human Resource Management (HRM) is a collective term for all the formal systems created to help in managing employees and other stakeholders within a company. Human resource management is tasked with three main functions, namely, the recruitment and compensation of employees, and designating work.

Ideally, the role of HRM is to find the best way to increase the productivity of an organization through its employees. Despite the ever-increasing rate of change in the corporate world, the HRM role is not likely to change in a significant way.

Until recently, a company’s HR department was categorized in the lower rungs. This is surprising considering the crucial role that this department plays in replenishing and nourishing an organization’s resources.

Principles of Human Resource Management

The HR department has transformed significantly from the task-oriented nature of administration it used to be in the 1980s. It is now viewed as a strategy-focused extension of every firm. The HR department thrives on specific principles, as highlighted below:

1. Commitment

One aspect that the HR department tries to deal with is job security. To guarantee job security, many employees know that they need to show commitment to the company and their job duties. The HR management comes in to put measures in place that ensure that staffing levels correspond to the company’s needs and that, in the process, assure employees of their long-term positions within the organization. The firm demonstrates its long-term commitment to the workers by providing regular training, performance evaluations, and goal-setting activities .

2. Competence

Competence is one of the core principles that supports a company’s growth and development. It is also an aspect that affects employees’ job satisfaction and how the company benefits society. The success of a firm depends on the competency of its employees. The HRM department tries to sustain workforce competency by providing training opportunities. It also schedules orientation programs, which provide avenues to enlighten new employees on a company’s mission and objectives.

Training and orientation are essential in improving employees’ skills, knowledge, and competency. The benefit of having a competent workforce is that it leads to the production of safe and reliable products and services that consumers can rely on. In the absence of a high level of competence, a company will be susceptible to lawsuits and legal claims resulting from the products and services that it renders.

Main Functions of Human Resource Management

1. employee recruitment.

Recruitment is the process of identifying talent gaps in a company and finding the right people to fill the roles. There are four stages in the employee recruitment process:

• Job analysis – This involves defining the various aspects of a job through job description and specification. Through job description, the HRM department identifies the tasks required for a specific job while the latter defines the requirements an individual needs to fulfill that job.
• Sourcing – This encompasses the different techniques a company employs to attract potential candidates to fill a given position. This can be achieved through internal and external advertisements.
• Screening and selection – This is the process of evaluating the candidates who apply for the job. The evaluation is performed to determine the skills, qualifications, competency, and job-related experience that potential candidates bring to the table.
• Selection of the right candidates – Once the best candidate has been selected, the next process that follows is onboarding. This is simply helping the new recruits become productive members of the company.

2. Employee Orientation

Another core function of human resource management is employee orientation. Also known as onboarding, it is the process of teaching new recruits the necessary skills, knowledge, and behaviors so that they can transition to the new company effectively.

Employee orientation is a broad process conducted by the HR department, and it’s done through different methods, including lectures, meetings, videos, mentoring, and team-building exercises. The main objective of the orientation is to provide new recruits with adequate information regarding the company’s targets, rules, policies, and activities.

3. Employee Development

Employee development refers to all the efforts for improving personal, team, and organizational effectiveness. One aspect the human resource department tackles is talent development. This involves aligning the employees’ skills with the company’s needs. In addition to hiring, training, and orienting employees, HRM should also improve their career opportunities.

Essentially, it is more economical to improve a company’s current workforce than to hire new employees in the future. So, employee development is a trade-off through which human resource management saves money by avoiding the potential costs of hiring new employees.

Human resource management refers to the process of recruiting and developing a company’s workforce. The HR department is concerned with identifying talent gaps in a company, advertising for positions, evaluating potential candidates, and hiring top talent.

Human resource management does not just handle the recruitment of new employees; it also oversees redundancy for companies that want to downsize. HR management also oversees orientation programs to introduce new employees to the company’s goals, objectives, and policies. Overall, human resource management guarantees the smooth running of employees within a company.

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1 Introduction to HRM: Meaning, definition, scope, objectives and functions of Human Resource Management

Garima Jain

1.      Learning Outcome:

After completing this module the students will be able to:

Understand the meaning and definition of

HRM. What is the scope of HRM.

Describe the Objectives of HRM.

Understand the functions of HRM.

2.      Introduction

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Why name human resource management?

Human : refer to the skilled workforce in the organisation .

Resource : refer to limited availability or scarce.

Management : refer to maximise or proper utilisation and make best use of limited and a scarce resource.

The success of any organization depends upon how it manages its resources. While several resources are the non – humanresource such as land, capital, and equipment, it is the human resource and its management which is at the heart of an organization’s success.

Human Resource (HR) refers to all the people who work in an organization called personnel . Human Resource Management refers to the organizational function which includes practices that help the organization to deal effectively with its people during the various phases of the employment cycle. HRM is management function concerned with hiring, motivating, and maintaining people in an organisation. It focuses on people in the organisation.

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1.1 According to Lawrence Appley, “Working with, for and through people is the way in which a manager accomplishes his job. Maintaining good human resources is a Manager’s responsibility. Providing human satisfaction from work output and relationship is a Manager’s obligation.”

1.2 In the words of Mr. NR Narayana Murthy, Chairman Emeritus, Infosys, “You must treat your employees with respect and dignity because in the most automated factory in the world, you need the power of human mind. That is what brings in innovation. If you want high quality minds to work for you, then you must protect the respect and dignity.”

1.3 In the words of John F. Kennedy, “Our progress as a nation can be no swifter than our progress in education. The human mind is our fundamental resource.”

3.  Meaning and Definition

Essentially, the Human Resource Management (HRM) is a management function that deals with recruiting, selecting, training and developing human resource in an organization. It      isconcerned with the”people” dimension in management. It includes activities focusing on the effective use of human resources in an organization. It is concerned with thedevelopment of a highly motivated and smooth functioning workforce. It also includes planning, acquiring, developing, utilising and maintaining ‘human resources’ in theachievement of organizational goals.

3.1 According to Edwin B. Flippo , “Human resource management is the planning, organizing, directing, and controlling of the procurement, development, compensation, integration, maintenance and separation of human resources to the end that individual, organizational and societial objectives are accomplished.”

3.2 The Indian Institute of Personnel Management defines HRM as, “Human resource management is a responsibility of all those who manage people as well as being a description of the work of those who are employed as specialists. It is that part of management which is concerned with people at work and with their relationships within an enterprise. It applies not only to industry and commerce but to all fields of employment.”

3.3 According to Tead and Metcaff , “Human resource management is the planning, supervision, direction and co-ordination of those activities of an organization which contribute to realising the definite purpose of that organization, with an animating spirit of co-operation and with a proper regard for the well-being of all the members of the organization.” 

3.4 Milkovich and Boudreau view HRM as, “A series of integrated decisions that form the employment relationship; their quality contributes to the ability of the organizations and the employees to achieve their objective.”

It is thus clear that human resource management is a specialized knowledge and practice concerned with the management of human resources in an organization. It constitutes a significant activity of the management. It attracts and selects capable men, organises them in productive groups, develops their potential, gives them necessary motivation and maintains their high morale.

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4.   Scope of HRM

The scope of HRM is indeed vast. All major activities in the working life of a worker -from the time of his or her entry until he or she leaves- come under the purview of HRM.

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4.1. According to Dale Yoder , the scope of human resource management consists of the following functions:

• 4.1.1.  Setting general and specific management policy for organisational relationships, and establishing and maintaining a suitable organisation for leadership and co-operation.
• 4.1.2.  Collective bargaining, contract negotiation, contract administration and grievance handling.
• 4.1.3.  Staffing the organisation, finding, getting and holding prescribed types and number of workers.
• 4.1.4.  Aiding in the self-development of employees at all levels providing opportunities for personal development and growth as well as for acquiring requisite skill and experience.
• 4.1.5.  Developing and maintaining motivation for workers by providing incentives.
• 4.1.6.  Reviewing and auditing manpower management in the organisation.
• 4.1.7.  Industrial relations research – carrying out studies designed to explain employee behavior

4.2. The Indian Institute of Personnel Management has described the scope of human resource management into the following aspects:

4.2.1. The Labour or Personnel Aspect: It is concerned with manpower planning, recruitment, selection, placement, induction, transfer, promotion, demotion, termination, training and development, layoff and retrenchment, wage and salary administration (remuneration), incentives, productivity, etc.

4.2.2. The Welfare Aspect: This aspect is concerned with working conditions and amenities such as canteens, creches, rest rooms, lunch rooms, housing, transport, education, medical help, health and safety, washing facilities, recreation and cultural facilities, etc.

4.2.3. The Industrial Relations Aspect: This is concerned with the company’s relations with the employees. It includes union-management relations, joint consultation, negotiating, collective bargaining, grievance handling, disciplinary actions, settlement of industrial disputes, etc.

All the above aspects are concerned with human element in industry as distinct from the mechanical element.

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5.   Objectives of HRM

The primary objective of HRM is to ensure the availability of a competent and willing workforce to an organization. Apart from this, there are other objectives too.

Specifically, HRM objectives are four fold: societal, organisational, functional, and personal.

Figure 1 – Objectives of HRM

5.1. Societal Objectives

The societal objectives are socially and ethically responsible for the needs and challenges of society. While doing so, they have to minimize the negative impact of such demands upon the organisation. The failure of organisations to use their resources for society’s benefit in ethical ways may lead to restrictions. For example, the society may limit human resource decisions to laws that enforce reservation in hiring and laws that address discrimination, safety or other such areas of societal concern.

5.2. Organisational Objectives

The organisational objectives recognise the role of human resource management in bringing about organisational effectiveness. Human resource management is not an in    itself; it is only a means to assist the organisation with its primary objectives. Simply stated the human resource department exists to serve the rest of the organisation.

5.3. Functional Objectives

Functional objectives try to maintain the department’s contribution at a level appropriate to the organisation’s needs. Human resources are to be adjusted to suit the organisation ’s demands. The department’s level of service must be tailored to fit the organisation it serves.

5.4. Personal Objectives

Personal objectives assist employees in achieving their personal goals, at least in so far as these goals enhance the individual’s contribution to the organisation. Personal objectives of employees must be met if they are to be maintained, retained and motivated. Otherwise, employee performance and satisfaction may decline giving rise to employee turnover.

6.   Functions of HRM

Human Resources management has an important role to play in equipping organizations to meet the challenges of an expanding and increasingly competitive sector. Increase in staff numbers, contractual diversification and changes in demographic profile which compel the HR managers to reconfigure the role and significance of human resources management.

Human Resource or Personnel Department is established in most of the organisations, under the charge of an executive known as Human Resource/Personnel Manager. This department plays an important role in the efficient management of human resources.

Some of the major functions of human resource management are as follows:

Managerial Functions

Operative Function

Advisory Function

Figure 2 – Functions of HRM

6.1. Managerial Functions:

The Human Resource Manager is a part of the organisational management. So he must perform the basic managerial functions of planning, organising, directing and controlling in relation to his department. These functions are briefly discussed below:

6.1.1.   Planning: To get things done through the subordinates, a manager must plan ahead. Planning is necessary to determine the goals of the organisation and lay down policies and procedures to reach the goals. For a human resource manager, planning means the determination of personnel programs that will contribute to the goals of the enterprise, i.e., anticipating vacancies, planning job requirements, job descriptions and determination of the sources of recruitment.

The process of personnel planning involves three essential steps.

6.1.1.1. A supply and demand forecast for each job category is made. This step requires knowledge to both labour market conditions and the strategic posture and goals of the                          organization.

6.1.1.2. Net shortage and excess of personnel by job category are projected for a specific time horizon.

6.1.1.3. Plans are developed to eliminate the forecast shortages and excess of particular categories of human resources.

6.1.2.   Organizing: Once the human resource manager has established objectives and developed plans and programs to reach them, he must design and develop organisation structure to carry out the various operations. The organisation structure basically includes the following:

6.1.2.1. Grouping of personnel activity logically into functions or positions;

6.1.2.2. Assignment of different functions to different individuals;

6.1.2.3. Delegation of authority according to the tasks assigned and responsibilities involved;

6.1.2.4. Co-ordination of activities of different individuals.

6.1.3.   Directing: The plans are to be pure into effect by people. But how smoothly the plans are implemented depends on the motivation of people. The direction function of the personnel involved encouraging people to work willingly and effectively for the goals of the enterprise.

In other words, the direction function is meant to guide and motivate the people to accomplish the personnel programs. The personnel manager can motivate the employees in an organisation through career planning, salary administration, ensuring employee morale, developing cordial relationships and provision of safety requirements and welfare of employees.

The motivational function poses a great challenge for any manager. The personnel manager must have the ability to identify the needs of employees and the means and methods of satisfy those needs. Motivation is a continuous process as new needs and expectations emerge among employees when old ones are satisfied.

6.1.4.     Controlling: Controlling is concerned with the regulation of activities in accordance with the plans, which in turn have been formulated on the basis of the objectives of the organisation. Thus, controlling completes the cycle and leads back to planning. It involves the observation and comparison of results with the standards and correction of deviations that may occur.

Controlling helps the personnel manager to evaluate the control the performance of the personnel department in terms of various operative functions. It involves performance appraisal, critical examination of personnel records and statistics and personnel audit.

6.2. Operative Functions:

The operative functions are those tasks or duties which are specifically entrusted to the human resource or personnel department. These are concerned with employment, development, compensation, integration and maintenance of personnel of the organisation. The operative functions of human resource or personnel department are discussed below:

6.2.1.     Employment: The first operative function of the human resource of personnel department is the employment of proper kind and number of persons necessary to achieve the objectives of the organisation. This involves recruitment, selection, placement, etc. of the personnel.

Before these processes are performed, it is better to determine the manpower requirements both in terms of number and quality of the personnel. Recruitment and selection cover the sources of supply of labour and the devices designed to select the right type of people for various jobs. Induction and placement of personnel for their better performance also come under the employment or procurement function.

6.2.2.     Development: Training and development of personnel is a follow up of the employment function. It is a duty of management to train each employee property to develop technical skills for the job for which he has been employed and also to develop him for the higher jobs in the organisation. Proper development of personnel is necessary to increase their skills in doing their jobs and in satisfying their growth need. For this purpose, the personnel departments will device appropriate training programs. There are several on- the-job and off-the-job methods available for training purposes. A good training program should include a mixture of both types of methods. It is important to point out that personnel department arranges for training not only of new employees but also of old employees to update their knowledge in the use of latest techniques.

6.2.3.       Compensation : This function is concerned with the determination of adequate and equitable remuneration of the employees in the organisation of their contribution to the organisational goals. The personnel can be compensated both in terms of monetary as well as non-monetary rewards. Factors which must be borne in mind while fixing the remuneration of personnel are their basic needs, requirements of jobs, legal provisions regarding minimum wages, capacity of the organisation to pay, wage level afforded by competitors etc. For fixing the wage levels, the personnel department can make use of certain techniques like job evaluation and performance appraisal.

6.2.4.     Maintenance (Working Conditions and Welfare): Merely appointment and training of people is not sufficient; they must be provided with good working, conditions so that they may like their work and workplace and maintain their efficiency. Working conditions certainly influence the motivation and morale of the employees. These include measures taken for health, safety, and comfort of the workforce. The personnel department also provides for various welfare services which relate to the physical and social well-being of the employees. These may include provision of cafeteria, rest rooms, counseling, group insurance, education for children of employees, recreational facilities, etc.

6.2.5.     Motivation: Employees work in the organisation for the satisfaction of their needs. In many of the cases, it is found that they do not contribute towards the organisational goals as much as they can. This happens because employees are not adequately motivated. The human resource manager helps the various departmental managers to design a system of financial and non-financial rewards to motivate the employees.

6.2.6.     Personnel Records: The human resource or personnel department maintains the records of the employees working in the enterprise. It keeps full records of their training, achievements, transfer, promotion, etc. It also preserves many other records relating to the behaviour of personnel like absenteeism and labour turnover and the personnel programs and policies of the organisation.

6.2.7.     Industrial Relations: These days, the responsibility of maintaining good industrial relations is mainly discharged by the human resource manager. The human resource manager can help in collective bargaining, joint consultation and settlement of disputes, if the need arises. This is because of the fact that he is in possession of full information relating to personnel and has the working knowledge of various labour enactments. The human resource manager can do a great deal in maintaining industrial peace in the organisation as he is deeply associated with various committees on discipline, labour welfare, safety, grievance, etc. He helps in laying down the grievance procedure to redress the grievances of the employees. He also gives authentic information to the trade union leaders and conveys their views on various labour problems to the top management.

6.2.8.     Separation: Since the first function of human resource management is to procure the employees, it is logical that the last should be the separation and return of that person to society. Most people do not die on the job. The organisation is responsible for meeting certain requirements of due process in separation, as well as assuring that the returned person is in as good shape as possible. The personnel manager has to ensure the release of retirement benefits to the retiring personnel in time.

6.3. Advisory Functions:

Human resource manager has specialised education and training in managing human resources. He is an expert in his area and so can give advice on matters relating to human resources of the organisation. He offers his advice to:

6.3.1.     Advised to Top Management: Personnel manager advises the top management in formulation and evaluation of personnel programs, policies and procedures. He also gives advice for achieving and maintaining good human relations and high employee morale.

6.3.2.    Advised to Departmental Heads: Personnel manager offers advice to the heads of various departments on matters such as manpower planning, job analysis and design,  recruitment and selection, placement, training, performance appraisal, etc.

The functions are responsive to current staffing needs, but can be proactive in reshaping organizational objectives. All the functions of HRM are correlated with the core objectives of        HRM (Table 1).

For example- Personal objectives is sought to be realized through functions like remuneration, assessment etc.

                                                                   1-HRM Objectives and Functions

Source:http://www.nicheconsulting.co.nz/images/HRM_impacts_on_bottomline_results.jpg.

Human Resource Management is the management function that helps the managers to plan, recruit, select, train, develop, remunerate and maintain members for an organization.

Maintaining good human resources is the manager’s responsibility. Providing human satisfaction from work output and relationship is a manager’s obligation

The scope of HRM is very large. All major activities in the working life of a worker i.e. from the time of his or her entry until he or she leaves the organisation comes under the purview of HRM.

HRM has four objectives of societal, organizational, functional and personal development.

HR manager performs three functions within organizations like managerial, operative and advisory functions

Books and References

• Aswathappa, K. Human Resource Management. Tata McGraw-Hill. • Dessler, Varkkey. Human Resource Management. Pearson. • www.aast.edu/…/pdf_retreive.php?url…HRM12e_PPT…ppt.. • lib.vcomsats.edu.pk/library/MGT450/…/LECTURE%201%20new.ppt

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Human Resource Management Assignment

2017, Human Resource Management Assignment

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Importance of HRM for Organizational Success

We have discussed the basic concept of HRM and the ways in which it helps the organization meet its goals. In this article, we discuss the reasons for organizations to have a HRM strategy as well as the business drivers that make the strategy imperative for organizational success.

It is a fact that to thrive in the chaotic and turbulent business environment, firms need to constantly innovate and be “ ahead of the curve ” in terms of business practices and strategies. It is from this motivation to be at the top of the pack that HRM becomes a valuable tool for management to ensure success.

The Evolving Business Paradigm

One of the factors behind organizations giving a lot of attention to their people is the nature of the firms in the current business environment.

Given the fact that there has been a steady movement towards an economy based on services, it becomes important for firms engaged in the service sector to keep their employees motivated and productive.

Even in the manufacturing and the traditional sectors, the need to remain competitive has meant that firms in these sectors deploy strategies that make effective use of their resources. This changed business landscape has come about as a result of a paradigm shift in the way businesses and firms view their employees as more than just resources and instead adopt a “ people first ” approach.

Strategic Management and HRM

As discussed in the articles on modern day HRM practices, there is a need to align organizational goals with that of the HR strategy to ensure that there is alignment of the people policies with that of the management objectives. This means that the HR department can no longer be viewed as an appendage of the firm but instead is a vital organ in ensuring organizational success.

The aims of strategic management are to provide the organization with a sense of direction and a feeling of purpose. The days when the HR manager was concerned with administrative duties is over and the current HRM practices in many industries are taken as seriously as say, the marketing and production functions.

The practice of HRM must be viewed through the prism of overall strategic goals for the organization instead of a standalone tint that takes a unit based or a micro approach.

The idea here is to adopt a holistic perspective towards HRM that ensures that there are no piecemeal strategies and the HRM policy enmeshes itself fully with those of the organizational goals.

For instance, if the training needs of the employees are simply met with perfunctory trainings on omnibus topics, the firm stands to lose not only from the time that the employees spend in training but also a loss of direction. Hence, the organization that takes its HRM policies seriously will ensure that training is based on focused and topical methods.

In conclusion, the practice of HRM needs to be integrated with the overall strategy to ensure effective use of people and provide better returns to the organizations in terms of ROI (Return on Investment) for every dollar or rupee spent on them. Unless the HRM practice is designed in this way, the firms stand to lose from not utilizing people fully. And this does not bode well for the success of the organization.

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Authorship/Referencing - About the Author(s)

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• H R Management - Introduction
• Importance of HRM
• Scope of HRM
• Various Processes in HRM
• The HRM Function
• Functions of a Human Resource Manager
• Staffing Role of the HR Manager
• Role of HRM in Leadership Development
• Role of HR in People Empowerment
• Talent Management and HRM
• Management of Contractors
• Performance Management as a HR Management Concept
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• Performance Appraisal Process
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• Variable Pay
• Diversity in Organizations
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• The Challenges of Managing Attrition
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• Use of Contract Staff & Temp Workers
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Human Resource Management Conclusion Essay Example

• Pages: 6 (1539 words)
• Published: April 12, 2017
• Type: Literature Analysis

The term human resource management (HRM) refers to the design and application of formal systems in an organization to ensure the effective and efficient use of human talent to accomplish organizational goals (Robert, L. M. & John, H. J. , 2002). This system includes activities undertaken to attract, develop, and maintain an effective workforce. Managers have to play an active role in recruiting and selecting the right employees, developing effective training programs, or creating appropriate performance appraisal systems.

Today, more than ever, strategic decisions are related to human resource consideration. In many companies, especially those that rely more on employee information, creativity, knowledge, and service, success depends on the ability to manage human capital (George, B. , Scott, S. , & Arthur, S. , 2001). To build human capital, HRM develops strategies for findin

g the best talent, enhancing their skills and knowledge with training programs and opportunities for personal development.

To be conclusion, I don’t approve of spending on the recruitment and selection of employees beyond their current level of job duties rather than spending a great deal of money on training. We should only do that we find the right people to do the right thing, to fit the culture, job description and job specification rather than beyond current level. Moreover we should concern both recruitment and selection of employees and training them, making a moderate balance for recruitment and training employees. In this essay, I will draw on real-life work situation and relevant HRM literature to illuminate my viewpoints.

Three primary goals of HRM The three broad HRM activities outlined in Exhibit 1 as below are to find the right people, manage talent so people achiev

their potential, and maintain the workforce over the long term, achieving these goals requires skills in planning, recruiting, training, all of those procedure affect the performance of the entire organization.

Manage talent Training Development Appraisal To effectively implement strategy of the cooperation, which the strategy focused on achieving certain goals, allocating the goals, it also includes some consistency, integration of decisions and actions (Robert, M. G. , 2010 strategy). Some of the major dimensions are recruitment and selection of employees and furthering training them, those there aspects integrate as one aspect and at the aspect of procedure, selection and recruitment should precede training, all of them are consistency, integration and cohesiveness.

The importance of recruiting and selecting employees Today, recruiting is sometimes referred to as talent acquisition to reflect the importance of human factor in the organization’s success (Megan, S. , 2005). Even when unemployment rates are high, companies often have trouble finding people with the skills the organization needs. A survey by manpower Inc. of 33000 employers in 23 countries found that 40 percent reported having difficulty finding and hiring the desired talent (Robert, E. P. , 2006).

The next step for managers is to select desired employees from the pool of recruited applicants. In the selection process, employees assess applicants’ characteristics in an attempt to determine the “fit” between the job and applicant characteristics. For most companies using selection devices for assessing applicant qualifications. And On average, 33 percent of organizations’ HR budget is allocated specifically to recruitment a18 percent is allocated specifically to selection. Over the next two years, most organizations will increase the amount of money they will spend on recruitment and selection. When

adjusting for normal increases due to cost inflation, 31 percent of organizations plan to increase spending for recruitment and 22 percent for selection.

Finding the right people to fit the current situation rather than beyond their current level of job duties. Underlying the organization’s effort to attract employees is a matching model. With the matching model, the organization and the individual attempt to match the needs, interests, and value that they offer each other (James, G. M. & Herbert, A. S. , 1958).

For example, a large manufacturer can only need those possess know-how ability, and can observe their regulations, they don’t need a high education person, as for an engineer who would thrive working for the software developer might feel stymied and unhappy working for a large manufacturer. Both the company and the employee are interested in finding a good match.

The benefits of training employees A well-trained, multiskilled workforce is essential to economic survival. Moreover many employees now look to the company they work for to provide them with growth and learning opportunities to improve their employability (Garger, E. M. , 1999). Research shows that investments in human resources are a potential source of competitive advantage and have a positive relationship with share market performance and profits (Huselid, M. , Jackson, S. E. & Schuler, R. S. , 1997). Then, let’s explore the benefits of effective training.

Increased Employee Motivation, Satisfaction, and Morale Even though there are so many methods to increase employees’ motivation, satisfaction and morale such as empowerment, improving the quality of their life, monetary incentives and other incentives. However, learning or training as one way to improve the satisfaction of employees’ attitude which is

always adopted by most companies. According to training or programs can increase the employees’ satisfaction and morale toward their company and the client, it also affect their job or carrier utility (Richard C. C. , 2011). In other words, if the body of knowledge gained can be applied to the work to be accomplished, then the acquisition of that knowledge will be a worthwhile event for the employee and employer.

Increased efficiency. Companies can save money without having to make cuts to staff, by doing the requirements training. With cutting out the redundant steps yet using the process of training that will result of gaining the expectations of your company, and even better from the required training(Jeff, P. C. , 1997). This will stay competitive and increase their efficiency. Along with this, they also continue to find a way to allow the company growth in this lagging economy. With requirements training this helps businesses to increasing efficiency.

Recently, one major cost for a company is the added time required to train a new employee. Employee turnover problems are present when a company faces difficulty in hiring the right people, of course monetary incentives can form a higher level of satisfaction in the workforce. However, providing ongoing training so that an employee can keep improving his skills and advancement opportunities. As a result, it will reduce the employee turnover rate and decrease the operation costs.

Risk management (e. g. , Training about sexual harassment, diversity training, etc. ) Differences among employees create diversity. Workers differ in age, gender, race, nationality, religion, sexual orientation, marital status and a range of other factors. Organizations need to be concerned with diversity management

because negative stereotyping and hostile work environments can lead to discrimination and harassment(Ivancevich, J. M. ), therefore, training about risk needs to be compulsory.

The reasons for training employees Today, changes, particularly in technology and organizational restructuring, mean that people and organizations are continually faced with situations that require learning and the exploitation of knowledge (Raymond, J. S. , 2011).  Business and economic changes Recession, international competition, tariff reductions, global outsourcing and restructuring are just a few of the dislocating factors affecting organizations today. During those problems, as for managers they need seek out new opportunities for growth and provide stretch goals for the entire organization, and for employees they need improve their ability and skills to challenge scarce competition, both of them need training and learning.

Organizational changes also create training needs. Organizations are becoming more flexible, participative, and simultaneously tougher and more humane (Raymond, J. S. , 2011). Work structure and design are changing dramatically, building on changes that have already begun. With every employee should fit the organizational development and clear about the value they add in both areas for both areas for internal and external customers and even employees should keep the pace of changing in organization behavior.

Changes in social attitudes, legal requirements, and industrial relations and so on generate training and development needs. Occupational health and safety, enterprise bargaining, smoking in the workplace, substance abuse, sexual harassment, the management of diversity and EEO requirements(Raymond, J. S. , 2011). As to know those changes and difference and then apply them into manager’s decisions or influence the behavior or attitude of employees’ attitude toward their company and customers. Organizations need to train their employees

for social, legal situation which they will meet in their career life.

The rate of technological change is now greater than it has ever been. No employee or organization can escape its whirlwind impact; moreover, added value is being created by brain power and not physical effort (Tapscott, D, 1996). Especially, in today’s society, many computer-controlled machinery and data advances require employees to possess new skills and know-how even continuously learn new knowledge to renew their head. On the other hand, employees (and organizations) can compete only if they learn faster than their competitors.

As I stated before, if an organization are better off in the furthering operation, it need many aspects of development. However, budget or source allocates on spending of the recruitment and selection of employees and then a great deal of money on training them is compulsory. Hence I don’t agree with the title which organization could operate well if the recruitment and selection of employees beyond their current level of job duties rather than spending a great deal of money on training.

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Strategic Human Resource Management (2024 Guide)

Updated: Jun 8, 2024, 9:04am

Table of Contents

What is strategic human resources, why strategic human resources is important, 5 steps to strategic human resources, bottom line, frequently asked questions (faqs).

Strategic human resource management (SHRM) is a process that organizations use to manage their employees. It is a way to ensure that the organization’s HR are used in a way that supports the organization’s goals. Think of it as a bridge connecting human resources and the goals of the company. With SHRM, businesses can more effectively manage employee performance and development, as well as create programs and policies that support the company’s overall strategy.

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The goal of SHRM is to create policies and programs that align with the company’s business strategy. The main difference between human resources and strategic human resources is that human resources focus on the day-to-day management of employees, while strategic human resources focus on how employees can achieve the company’s overall goals. This means that SHRM must first understand the company’s business goals and then create programs and policies that support those goals.

Some common examples of SHRM programs and policies include:

• Performance management: Creating systems to track and improve employee performance
• Training and development: Identifying employees’ development needs and providing training and resources to help them improve
• Compensation and benefits: Designing compensation and benefits programs that attract and retain employees
• Employee relations: Managing employee relations to create a positive work environment

These are just a few examples of the types of programs and policies that can be part of SHRM. The specific programs and policies will vary depending on the company’s goals and the needs of its employees.

SHRM is important because it helps businesses achieve their goals. By aligning HR programs and policies with the company’s business strategy, SHRM can help businesses improve employee performance, develop the workforce and create a positive work environment. SHRM can also help businesses save money by reducing turnover and improving productivity.

• Improve employee performance: SHRM can help businesses improve employee performance by creating systems to track and improve performance.
• Develop the workforce: SHRM can help businesses develop the workforce by identifying employees’ development needs and providing training and resources to help them improve.
• Create a positive work environment: SHRM can help businesses create a positive work environment by managing employee relations.
• Reduce turnover: SHRM can help businesses reduce turnover by designing compensation and benefits programs that attract and retain employees.
• Improve productivity: SHRM can help businesses improve productivity by improving employee performance and creating a positive work environment.

Now that you know what SHRM is and why it’s important, you may wonder how to get started. The process involves knowing the goals of your company, its abilities, future needs and resources. From there, you put your plan into action, then reassess and pivot if necessary.

Here are the five steps to strategic human resources plan:

1. Know your company’s goals and abilities

The first step to SHRM is understanding your company’s goals and abilities. When you know your company goals and can articulate them, you’ll have an easier time creating programs and policies that support those goals. You’ll also be able to more effectively measure the success of your SHRM programs and make changes as needed.

Consider the following questions:

• What are your company’s long-term goals?
• What are your company’s strengths and weaknesses?
• What resources does your company have now?
• What skills does your workforce currently have?
• Are there any gaps in talent or skills?

Answering these questions will help you understand your company’s goals and abilities, and how SHRM can help you achieve those goals.

2. Forecast future needs

Now that you have an idea of your company’s goals and abilities, you need to forecast future needs. In order to ensure your company’s future success, you need to predict how many employees with the required skills will be necessary and measure it against your company’s current workforce. This will help you determine what skills your company will need in the future and how to develop those skills in your workforce.

• What skills will your company need in the future?
• How many employees with those skills will you need?
• How does that compare to your current workforce?

By answering these questions, you will be able to comprehend what abilities your company will need in the future and how to cultivate a workforce with those required skills.

3. Determine the resources needed to achieve company goals

After you know your company’s goals and have forecasted future needs, you need to determine the resources needed to achieve those goals. This includes identifying the financial resources, human resources and physical resources required.

• What financial resources will you need to achieve your company’s goals?
• What human resources will you need to achieve your company’s goals?
• What physical resources will you need to achieve your company’s goals?

To determine these, you’ve got to conduct an audit of both your internal and external resources. This will give you a sense of what types of resources you have available to achieve your goals and where you may need to supplement.

For example, if you’re looking to expand your workforce, you may need to invest in recruiting programs. Or, after conducting a needs assessment, you may find that your current workforce doesn’t have the necessary skills to achieve your company’s goals, so you’ll need to invest in training programs.

Another example is if you’re looking to launch a new product. In this case, you’ll need to consider the financial resources required to develop and market the product, as well as the physical resources required to produce it. You’ve also got to consider talent and skill set when launching a new product. Do you have the right people in place to bring your product to market? And do they have the necessary skills to do so?

4. Execute your plan

Now that you’ve set your company’s goals, forecasted its future needs and gathered the resources required to achieve those goals, it’s time to put your SHRM plan into action. Most companies start by recruiting the right candidates, training and development and then performance management. However, this will vary depending on your company’s specific needs.

If you already have a large talent pool to choose from, you may be better off cultivating skills of current employees before recruiting outside talent. After you’ve satisfied that resource, you may find you still need to hire. If so, you’ll need to have clear expectations and skill requirements before recruiting.

Once you’ve hired talent, it’s imperative to have a proper onboarding process. This will help ensure that your new hires are set up for success and understand what’s expected of them. After you’ve brought new talent into the fold, you need to focus on development. This includes training programs as well as opportunities for professional growth. By offering these opportunities, you’ll be able to retain top talent and keep them engaged in their work.

Last but not least is performance management. This includes setting clear expectations, providing feedback and conducting performance reviews. Performance management is a key part of SHRM as it helps ensure that your workforce is meeting expectations and contributing to your company’s bottom line.

Here are a few things to keep in mind when executing your SHRM plan:

• Set realistic goals and timelines. Trying to accomplish too much in a short period of time can be overwhelming and lead to mistakes.
• Get buy-in from upper management. If those at the top aren’t on board with your SHRM plan, it’s going to be difficult to get everyone else on board.
• Communicate with your employees. Employees should be aware of the goals of the SHRM plan and how it will affect them. This will help get them on board and ensure that they’re working towards the same goals.
• Be prepared to adjust your plan. As with any plan, things may not go as expected. Be prepared to make adjustments to ensure that you’re still on track to achieve your company’s goals. We’ll discuss this in detail in the next section.

5. Assess and pivot

After you’ve executed your SHRM plan, it’s important to assess how things are going. This includes looking at what’s working and what’s not. Based on your assessment, you may need to make adjustments to your plan. For example, if you’re not seeing the results you want, you may need to change your recruiting strategy. Or, if you’re finding that your training programs aren’t effective, you may need to make changes to those as well.

It’s also important to keep in mind that your SHRM plan is not a one-time thing. As your company grows and changes, so too will your SHRM needs. As such, it’s important to revisit your SHRM plan on a regular basis to ensure that it’s still relevant and effective.

Strategic human resource management is a process that helps companies achieve their goals by better managing their workforce. By taking the time to develop a SHRM plan, companies can ensure that they have the right people in place to achieve their goals. While developing a SHRM plan can be time-consuming, the benefits outweigh the costs. Not only will a well-executed SHRM plan help you achieve your company’s goals, but it will also help you retain top talent and keep your employees engaged in their work.

What is strategic human resource management (SHRM)?

Strategic human resource management is a process that helps companies manage their workforce in a way that aligns with their company’s goals.

Why is SHRM important?

SHRM is important because it helps companies ensure that they have the right people in place to achieve their company’s goals. Additionally, SHRM can help companies retain top talent and keep their employees engaged in their work.

What's the difference between human resources and strategic human resource management?

The difference between human resources and strategic human resource management is that human resources focuses on the day-to-day management of employees while SHRM takes a more strategic approach.

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In this free course we have emphasised the importance of context for the skilful practice of human resource management. Your study has enabled you to gain an initial understanding of the following:

• the scope of HRM
• the meaning and nature of strategic HRM
• how HR strategies are related to business strategies
• how HR strategies can be informed by a knowledge of labour markets and product markets locally, nationally and internationally
• the dynamic nature of global competition and of social and technological trends and their significance for HRM practice.

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What Is Human Resource Management? Definition + Career Guide

Learn about human resource management roles, responsibilities, salary, and how to get started in this field.

Human resource management , or HRM, involves coordinating, managing, and allocating human capital , or employees, in ways that move an organization’s goals forward. HRM focuses on investing in employees, ensuring their safety, and managing all aspects of staffing from hiring to compensation and development. 

HRM careers may specialize in compensation , training , or managing employees . Most HRM professionals hold a bachelor’s degree and some go on to pursue a master's degree. HRM professionals at all levels can also earn professional certifications to help build knowledge and increase earning potential. HRM’s goal is to build a company culture and carry out its mission and overall goals through the management of employees. 

Keep reading to learn more about a career in human resource management, or start learning now with these popular HR courses on Coursera:

University of Minnesota's Human Resource Management: HR for People Managers Specialization

HRCI's Human Resource Associate Professional Certificate

Macquarie University's Leading: Human Resource Management and Leadership Specialization

Definition of Human Resource Management (HRM) 

Human resource management is organizing, coordinating, and managing an organization's current employees to carry out an organization’s mission, vision, and goals. This includes recruiting, hiring, training, compensating, retaining, and motivating employees. 

HRM staff also develops and enforces policies and procedures that help ensure employee safety. The HRM team manages adherence to federal and state laws that may work to protect employees’ private information and ensure their physical safety and mental and emotional well-being. Organizations of varying sizes and industries rely on HRM to keep business running smoothly and efficiently. 

Learn more: What Is Human Resources? (Jobs, Areas, Skills, and More)

Purpose of human resource management (HRM)

The methodology behind HRM recognizes the value employees bring to an organization, also known as human capital. Investing in employees and strategically supporting their needs can improve employee satisfaction and employee motivation. Employees who are well trained, competent, valued, and supported by their employers will likely have the skills and incentive necessary to carry out the organization’s goals.

Let's look at the purpose behind HRM in more depth:

Develop employees' skills.

HRM aims to create a highly skilled workforce and boost confidence and competence so that employees are motivated to contribute. A human resource manager or department might provide:

Tuition reimbursement programs

On-the-job training

Mentorships within an organization

Career development programs to help employees explore their potential

Foster a productive workplace culture.

HRM has a strong focus on company culture and job satisfaction. Much of what motivates employees comes from the culture in which they work. Employee engagement programs can foster an inclusive and collaborative workplace culture. Although culture can be challenging to measure and quantify, it’s an important function of HRM to retain and recruit employees. 

Protect employees.

HRM also protects employees. Human resource (HR) professionals manage legal documents, policies, and regulations, identify what applies to their organization, and find effective ways to educate employees and enforce company policy. HRM aims to be an ally or partner to employees. HRM emphasizes employee development while protecting employees from discrimination, workplace hazards, and unfair compensation. 

Basic elements of Human Resource Management (HRM)

The human resource management field includes recruiting new hires, evaluating employee performance, ensuring fair compensation and benefits, training employees and supporting education and development, and protecting the health and safety of all employees. These are critical cornerstones of the work of HRM professionals. From crafting a job posting to providing continuing education options, HRM functions at all stages of an employee's journey with an organization. To be an effective HRM professional, you will need a mix of personal and technical skills like recruitment strategies, creating compensation plans, and communication and team building. 

Recruitment 

An effective recruitment process is at the foundation of HRM. If you can recruit good talent, you can build on their skills and invest in employees for years to come as they add value to the organization. Equally important is company culture. You want employees that add to the culture of the organization. Some common recruiting tools HRM may use include job aggregators like Indeed or SimplyHired, video interviewing, or even social media sites like LinkedIn. 

Related course: Recruiting, Hiring, and Onboarding Employees from University of Minnesota

Evaluation and performance management  

HRM uses data to track employee performance to ensure a highly trained and capable workforce. The data compiled can also be used to change staff training methods, implement a merit-based system for raises, and more. HRM professionals use formal measures like performance reviews and informal methods like interviews or surveys. 

Related course: Managing Employee Performance from University of Minnesota

Compensation 

Compensation can mean salary, commission, benefits, time off, and other non-monetary benefits. HRM looks to the industry standard to set salary rates, commission rates, and benefits. This ensures fairness and allows for a consistent company standard. Some organizations may use performance reviews to adjust an employee’s salary, among other measures. 

Related course: Compensation and Benefits from HRCI

Employee development and learning 

Engaged employees are effective employees. HRM understands the importance of a workforce that is challenged but also supported. Most employees want opportunities for advancement and to feel competent and valued in what they bring to an organization. Part of HRM is providing these learning opportunities to employees. This might include tuition reimbursement programs, on-the-job training options, conferences, conventions, or certification programs. Aside from individual learning, HRM can also use employee development and learning to help employees adapt to organizational changes, such as system upgrades, technology shifts, and new policies. 

Related course: Learning and Development from HRCI

Employee health and safety

The safety and well-being of an organization’s employees are critically important aspects of HRM. Employee health and safety covers a lot, such as safety against harassment, discrimination, or bullying in the workplace. It can mean physical safety that would involve building fire code compliance. It can also mean adherence to labor laws that protect an employee's rights in the workplace. Safety in the workplace means cybersecurity or safeguarding an employee’s personal information. A lot goes into protecting all aspects of employees’ health and safety, and it is the job of HRM professionals to ensure that protection. A few ways HRM professionals may go about this is by installing security cameras, enforcing internet usage rules, implementing a zero-tolerance policy, or creating restricted access areas.

Related course: Compliance and Risk Management from HRCI

Careers in human resource management (HRM)

You can find many different careers in HRM , with varying points of entry into this field. Most positions in HRM require at least a bachelor’s degree in human resources or a related field. You can also earn certifications to help you find the best position within the vast field of HRM. HRM professionals have important jobs that can be both rewarding and fulfilling. According to the US Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), the human resources management field is expected to grow 7 percent from 2021-2031, or about 12,600 new jobs, on par with the national average [ 1 ]. The BLS cites an average annual US salary of $126,230 as of 2021. Read on to explore specific roles, salaries, and job descriptions.   

*All US salary averages are sourced from Glassdoor, July 2023, and include base pay and additional compensation.

Payroll specialist

Salary: $50,730 

Payroll specialists gather employee information, ensure its accuracy, and administer compensation based on hours worked. This role usually works with a team of other payroll specialists and other departments to approve expenses, manage budgets, and process payroll. A degree in accounting or experience in payroll or accounting is common. 

Training and development manager 

Salary: $88,431 

A training and development manager, who may also be called a training coordinator, oversees employment training and implements training initiatives to build employee competence. Other responsibilities of this role may include communicating an organization's mission statement or company values and creating training programs. Training coordinators typically hold a bachelor’s degree and relevant certifications, and have experience in HR.

Human resources manager 

Salary: $79,987 

An HR manager oversees an entire HR department or portion of an HR department, depending on the company’s size. This role manages the hiring of staff, implementing policies, overseeing payroll and benefits, and advising managers or other supervisors from other departments. Qualifications typically include a bachelor’s degree in human resources or a related field, experience in HR, and possibly certifications. 

Benefits manager 

Salary: $114,196

Benefits managers oversee the payroll department, ensuring all functions related to compensation and benefits are carried out and accurate. This job ensures employees are paid based on an organization’s pay structure, and benefits are granted per employee contracts. As a benefits and compensation manager, you also meet with other departments to discuss financial matters. Qualifications typically include a bachelor’s degree in accounting or related field, experience in payroll or management, and possibly certifications depending on your employer. 

Learn more: HR Entry-Level Job Guide: Jobs, Salaries, and Strategies to Get Hired

Who's hiring?

Glassdoor reports that the top-rated companies, with more than 10,000 employers, that are hiring HR managers include Intuit, NVIDIA, ServiceNow, TaskUs, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, and NASA [ 3 ].

How to get started in human resources management

There are different options for launching a career in human resources management. They often include a combination of education, experience, certification, and networking. Read on to discover ways you can begin preparing for a career in HRM. 

Consider degree opportunities.  

Sixty-seven percent of HRM professionals hold a bachelor’s degree in human resources, business, psychology, or a related field, and 14 percent have a master’s [ 2 ]. Common HR degree coursework includes workplace diversity, business ethics, labor relations, strategic HR, and workforce planning. Some programs may also require internship experience. 

As you gain an HR education, be sure to build important skills like performance management, customer service , payroll processing, communication , leadership, and organization. In addition, familiarize yourself with popular HR software programs like ADP Workforce Now , Bamboo HR , and Workday .

Read more: What Can I Expect from a Human Resources Degree?

Gain HR experience.

You can stand out as an HRM job candidate with some experience in the HR field. There are opportunities to gain experience at all levels, whether you’re a new graduate or a seasoned professional.  One way to get experience is through internships and entry-level positions such as human resources assistant or associate. In these entry-level roles, you’ll assist in the major duties of HR and build experience to move forward. Joining professional organizations and attending networking opportunities like conferences and conventions is another way to gain experience, knowledge, and connections in HRM. 

Read more: How to Use LinkedIn: A Guide to Online Networking

Earn professional certifications. 

Consider professional certification to improve your chances of getting hired into an upper-level or senior-level position in HRM. Your human resource management salary may also be positively affected if you gain certifications. There are many professional certification options offered by national HR and business organizations. Choose the one that fits your long-term career goals and eligibility. Select from certifications specifically designed for individuals new to HR up to senior-level employees. 

HR Certification Institute offers eight different certifications. The Associate Professional in Human Resources does not require any educational prerequisites, and you do not need any prior experience in HR to be eligible. This certification is ideal for entry-level candidates who want to advance in HRM. Its professional and senior certifications have both educational and experience requirements and would be suitable for someone who has already worked in HR. International and global options are available for anyone who works with companies outside of the US. 

Society for Human Resource Management (SHRM) offers two different certifications for HRM professionals. These are the SHRM Certified Professional (SHRM-CP) and the SHRM Senior Certified Professional (SHRM-SCP). You don’t need previous experience in HR, and there are no educational requirements for the SHRM-CP. The SHRM-SCP does have requirements for both experience and education. 

WorldatWork provides certifications specifically designed for individuals who work in payroll or benefits. Any HR professional could benefit from these certifications, as most HRM professionals handle finances, payroll, and budgets. You can earn a Certified Compensation Professional (CCP) certification, Certified Executive Compensation Professional (CECP) certification, Certified Benefits Professional (CBP) certification, and more.

Apply for HRM positions. 

Once you’ve honed the skills you’ll need to work in HRM and acquired any certifications or training, it’s time to polish your resume and apply for positions in HRM. Work on your resume as you go, gathering personal and professional references. Join professional organizations, take online courses, and attend conferences—all of which would be included on your resume and illustrate your dedication and drive.

Read more: 10 Ways to Enhance Your Resume 

When you prepare your resume, include credentials, all related previous professional experience, internships, your education, professional organizations of which you’re a member,  achievements, qualifications, and skills relevant to HRM. One important tip, especially for HR resumes: Optimize your resume with targeted keywords that could be picked up by applicant tracking systems (ATS) , which you will also likely use in your career as an HRM professional. 

Explore human resource management with Coursera

Taking online courses can be a great way to enhance your performance in your current role and prepare for career advancement. Consider taking one of Coursera's top-rated courses in HR:

To learn a data-driven approach to managing people, take the University of Pennsylvania's People Analytics course. This course takes about eight hours to complete and covers staffing, talent management, and more. It's part of the Business Analytics specialization.

To delve deeper into HRM, sign up for the University of Minnesota's Human Resource Management: HR for People Managers Specialization . This five-course program takes about two months to complete and covers such processes as recruiting, managing performance, and managing compensation.

To delve deeper into leading teams, creating culture, and strategizing business growth, consider the Strategic Leadership and Management Specialization . This seven-course program takes about two months to complete and can count towards a degree or graduate certificate from the University of Illinois.

Article sources

US Bureau of Labor Statistics. “ Occupational Outlook Handbook: Human Resources Managers , https://www.bls.gov/ooh/management/human-resources-managers.htm.” Accessed July 13, 2023. 

Zippia. “ Human Resources Manager Education Requirements , https://www.zippia.com/human-resources-manager-jobs/education/.” Accessed July 13, 2023.

Glassdoor. " Company ratings by category , https://www.glassdoor.com/Explore/browse-companies.htm?overall_rating_low=4.5&page=1&occ=Hr%20Manager&filterType=RATING_OVERALL." Accessed July 27, 2023.

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This content has been made available for informational purposes only. Learners are advised to conduct additional research to ensure that courses and other credentials pursued meet their personal, professional, and financial goals.

human resources management assignment

Is personnel management truly different from human resources management? Discuss.

acknowledgements

I would like to thank Dr. A. K. SRIVASTAVA, my course leader for  Human Resources Management for his continuing interest, encouragement, and support in helping me complete this assignment.

We are all influenced by the thoughts and ideas of other people which tend to drift into the subconscious and are not always distinguished clearly from one’s own. I have attempted to give references for sources of work by other writers but apologise to any concerned if acknowledgement has inadvertently not been recorded. 

1.     Acknowledgements                                       

2.     List of Figures                                                        

3.     Abstract                                                                            

4.     Introduction                                                                      

5.     What is Personnel Management                            

6.     What is Human Resources Management                        

7.     The move towards HRM                                                           

8.     HRM & Personnel Management -is there a difference?   

9.     Conclusion                                                                       

10.Bibliography                                                                    

list OF Figures

Increasing liberalisation and growth of MNCs in the modern economies has made traditional sources of competitive advantage such as technology, proximity to markets etc. almost common to every organisation and hence the importance of human resources as a distinct competitive advantage has significantly grown. Along with this growth has increased the need for effectively dealing with the various problems faced by employees. The role of personnel management has never been seen as that of a caring and nurturing function and therefore the need for some new management approach , to go beyond the ‘written contract’, was strongly felt. The introduction of human resources management with its approach towards active participation, involvement, empowerment and development soon led to the construction of a significant HRM infrastructure and major emphasis was laid down towards the adoption of HRM policies. Was it really the development of a new approach to the management of people? or Was it merely personnel management under the garb of HRM? Opinions still vary and the debate is still on. However one thing is for sure - businesses can no longer overlook the needs of the worker, and only a wholehearted approach to integrating HRM policies at the top level can ensure their continued success throughout the next millennium.

Introduction

The world today is in an era of globalisation. It has become a battlefield for  a variety of organisations trying to ensure continued success in their businesses. The organisation as an entity is going out of fashion and it is being widely recognised that people are not merely one of the factors of production, but are the major source of competitive advantage. The emphasis has shifted from the ‘contract of employment’ to the ‘contract for performance.’ The traditional so-called ‘Fordist’ or ‘Taylorist’ methods are increasingly said to be dysfunctional in relation to the changing context of business. It is argued that the developed economies cannot compete head-on, with their competitors in the Far East and other third world countries, solely on terms of cost. Instead they must put emphasis on the quality of goods and services which can be achieved only through a quality workforce and through a proper way of managing them. This has given way to a new flexible ‘people management technique’. However an organisation’s approach to such new techniques depends to a great extent on how well it fits both in the external and the internal environment and most importantly on the philosophy of the senior management.

What is Personnel Management ?

“The Institute of Personnel Management (IPM) defined Personnel Management in 1963 as:

a responsibility of all those who manage people, as well as being the description of the work of those who are employed as specialists. It is that part of management which is concerned with people at work and with their relationship within an enterprise. It applies not only to industry and commerce but to all fields of employment. Personnel management aims to achieve both efficiency and justice, neither of which can be pursued successfully without the other. It seeks to bring together and develop into an effective organisation the men and women who make up an enterprise, enabling each other to make his, or her, own best contribution to its success both as an individual and as a member of a working group. It seeks to provide fair terms and conditions of employment and satisfying work.” (Pike, C. and Grenham, M, 1997, p20).

Largely personnel is seen as an essentially operational responsibility unconnected with strategic management. On a daily basis personnel managers are confronted by various ambiguities, with respect to the contribution of personnel , as an activity to organisational success. This results in the personnel specialists potential for being scapegoated being raised and the formulation of vicious circles, from which they find it difficult to extricate themselves.

Without political support within an organisation any new activity, undertaken by the personnel specialists, aimed at giving the Personnel Department a more adventurous role becomes unsuccessful . Thus the Personnel Department becomes entangled in a vicious circle of information denial, lack of support and credibility. “It is not surprising then that personnel management has an enduring problem of establishing credibility. In the decade of the enterprise culture and into the 1990s HRM is being presented as a model of managing people at work that is more credible than Personnel Management.” (Legge, K, 1995, p28).

What is HRM ?

The latter half of the 1980s and the opening years of this decade saw the development of significant HRM infrastructure and its growing popularity in a wide variety of work contexts. “ As a new set of ideas and practices HRM originated in the US, where in turn, it can be seen as the Americanised version of the ‘Japanese’ methods.” (Storey, J and Sisson, K, 1996, p8).

It is generally agreed that HRM as a distinctive approach possesses the following key features :

1.      Commitment - HRM policies are designed to ensure the commitment of people to their work and to their organisation.

2.      Competence - HRM policies are designed to attract, train and develop the right people with the right skills and knowledge needed now and in the future.

3.      Cost Effectiveness - HRM is designed to achieve cost effectiveness in terms of salaries, wages and benefits; and through reduction of turnover, absenteeism and industrial unrest.

4.      Congruence - HRM policies seek to achieve consistency between management and employees emphasising values of team work.

Moreover there are certain features increasingly assumed with HRM :

1.      Integration of personnel policies both with one another and with business planning.

2.      The locus of responsibility for personnel management now resides with the senior line managers.

3.      A shift in the focus from management - trade union relations to management - employee relations.

4.      “There is a stress on exercise of initiatives, with mangers now doing the role of enabler, empowerer, and facilitator.” (Sisson, K, 1990, p4).

HRM regards people as the most important asset of the organisation. It seeks to enhance the organisation performance, “employee needs and societal well being.” (Poole, M, 1993, p3 cited by Sisson, K, 1990, p4). “HRM has its hard and soft dimensions. What is striking is that the same term is capable of signalling diametrically opposite set of message. The hard face of HRM emphasises the quantitative, calculative and business strategic aspects of managing the human resources in as rational a way as for any other factor while the soft face emphasises communication, motivation and leadership.” (Storey, J, 1987 cited by Storey, J and Sisson, K, 1996, p8).

Considering the various limited developments taking place , it would not be wrong to suggest that these represent the first stages in a more thoroughgoing transformation to HRM . However the process is hindered by a number of critical problems, many stemming from the central question of why is there a tendency for HRM to increase at the expense of Personnel Management ? and is HRM really different from Personnel Management ?

The move towards HRM

There is a tendency for HRM to increase at the expense of Personnel Management due to the following important reasons :

·         With widespread unemployment, the workplace has lost its aura as a source of personal self-esteem and meeting of personal goals at work is a prospect denied to many.

·         HRM is a form of “conformist innovation” (Legge, K, 1978, p67 cited by Torrington, D and Hall, L, 1995, p13) which closely identifies with central management interests and conforms to the criteria of organisational success adopted by managerial colleagues, thus repositioning personnel function as more influential.

·         The prolonged economic recession of the late 1980s stimulated managerial concern in favour of short-term survival tactics and a narrow HRM approach. Only recently is the need for long term commitment being increasingly felt.

·         Growing external environmental changes and the ever increasing search for competitive advantage has reinforced the tendency for personnel managers to become deployer of resources and knowledgeable about sources, rather than simply users of skills and aware about people.

·         There is an increased need for personnel activities to be justified in cost terms and the direct allocation of various costs to justify the needs for those activities.

·         The emphasis of employment legislation has shifted from employee rights towards union containment, thereby lessening the management’s anxiety about labour union pressures.

·         Devolution of personnel duties to line managers.

HRM and Personnel Management - Is there a difference ?

“The contention that HRM is proactive rather than reactive, system-wide rather than piecemeal, treats labour as social capital rather than as a variable cost and ultimately based on commitment rather than compliance” (Beer and Spector, 1985; Guset, 1991; Walton, 1985 cited by Blyton, P and Turnbul, P, 1996, p5) suggest that it is ‘better’ than personnel management.

Underpinning personnel management are the twin ideas that employees have a right to be treated properly as dignified human beings in their organisation, they will be effective only when their job-related personal needs are satisfied, and that this is not possible with the intervention of personnel management in the everyday management-subordinate relationship. Whereas underpinning HRM is the central idea that management of ‘human assets’ cannot be left out for specialists to handle, employee’s career and competence needs should be met within a context of efficient management in an environment of mutual respect. HRM’s role is directed towards supporting other managers in their people management and contributing to major strategic change.

However this distinction is one over which there is much debate and ambiguity. Large scale surveys have shown that a large number of corporate personnel chiefs claimed to have an overall HR policy, but very few could actually describe it. “Similarly in the UK, there is widespread agreement that, in one way or another, the adoption of HRM has so far been limited to a small number of largely foreign owned, ‘exemplar’ companies; adopting HRM in a very partial and piecemeal way and limited in many cases to a mere relabelling of existing activity and position” (Storey, J and Keith, S, 1990, p65) to give the personnel managers, if not necessarily the personnel function, the status which they have been seeking.

This difficulty is further compounded if we consider a series of questions about HRM :

·         Is it a ‘practitioner driven process’ attracting a wide audience and prompting subsequent analysis?

·         Is it an ‘academically driven description of the employment relations’ to which practitioners have subsequently become drawn?

·         Does it essentially prescribe how such a model ‘ought’ to be?

·         Is it a ‘leading edge’ approach as to how such a relationship actually ‘is’ within certain types of organisations? ( Beardwell, I and Holden, L, 1997, p12).

A close comparison suggests  that there are clear similarities between personnel management and HRM :

·         “Both models emphasise the importance of integrating personnel /HRM practices with organisational goals.

·         Both models vest personnel /HRM firmly in line management.

·         Both models emphasise the importance of individuals fully developing their abilities for their own personal satisfaction to make their ‘best contribution’ to the  organisation’s success.

·         Both models identify placing the ‘right’ people into the ‘right’  job as an ‘essential process’ ” . (Legge, K, 1995, p71).

There are infact very little ‘real’ differences between the two, the important ones being as follows:

·         HRM not only emphasises the importance of employee development (what is done by managers) but also focuses on the development of the ‘management team’ (what is done to managers).

·         Under HRM there is a more proactive role for line managers with greater emphasis on product quality through effective integration of HRM policies with business strategies.

·         HRM models emphasise that there is a top management responsibility for managing the organisational culture.

Further reflection, however, suggest that there are some fundamental flaws in the thinking associated with the new paradigm. The fundamental shifts in attitudes and behaviour that managing the culture or task participation involve is hardly feasible and so is the detailed integration of personal policies practices involved in the paradigm shift. To believe that senior mangers will necessarily accept that the policies and practices associated with the model of ‘HRM organisation’ are as strategically important as suggested is also wrong as organisations are faced with intensifying international competition and there is little evidence to demonstrate that a ‘HRM Organisation’ will necessarily bring the promised return on investment. The strategic models ignore the importance of the various factors as well as the structure within which senior managers exert strategic choice, both in the national context and the supra-national context.

A significant division exists between analyses which stress the innovative elements of HRM - claiming to address new ways and methods of managing employees and those which stress the derivative elements -claiming to be no more than a rework of the traditional themes of personnel management . Indeed some writers, mostly Karen Legge, believe that personnel management was beginning to emerge as a more strategic function in the late 1970s before the concept was subsumed  under the title of HRM. There is little doubt that the boundaries of HRM overlap the traditional areas of personnel management , industrial relations, organisational behaviour, strategic and operational management. However the HRM perspective claims to atleast present a different perspective on the issue of arranging a range of organisational objectives in a strategic way to enhance the performance of employees in the achievement of these very goals.

To conclude “ it would be inaccurate to suggest that one approach has taken over from the other, just as it would be wrong to suggest that one is modern, and the other old fashioned, and that one is right and the other wrong.” (Torrington, D. and Hall, L., 1995, p12). The prescription for managing people may take various formulations such as the flexible organisation , the empowered organisation , the learning organisation , the open company as well as human resources management, but most of the key features are commonly aimed at the development of a highly committed and adaptable work force. Organisations should aim to build the ‘HRM organisation’ by harnessing the co-operation and commitment of others through flexibility of function, time, task and reward. However the HRM paradigm has to be treated with utmost caution. The assumption on which it depends mean that only a few companies will find it feasible, and even they will require a supporting set of structure. To have a corporation-wide mutually reinforcing set of HRM policies in an organisation operating in a highly diverse product market; and to create an organisational culture which pursues both individualistic and teamwork policies at the same time is a very difficult task, if not impossible. Today HRM is increasingly becoming a common term in the business world. Yet how much substance lies behind this terminology is still a matter of debate. Opinions still vary on the extent and pace of adoption of the ‘real’ HRM and the kindest conclusion that can be drawn is that the HR function has some way to go before it really becomes a part of the management of the new millennium.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.      Armstrong, M. (1991) : “ Personnel and the Bottom Line ” : London : Kogan Page.

2.      Beardwell, Ian. and Holder, Len. (1997): “ HRM - A Contemporary Perspective ” (2 nd ED.) : Pitman Publishing.

3.      Beer, M. and Spector, B. (1995) : “ Corporate wide transformation in HRM ” , in R. E. Walton and P. R. Lawrence (eds.), “ HRM : Trends and Challenges ”. Boston : Harvard Business Review. 

4.      Guest, D. (1991) :  Personnel Management : The end of orthodoxy? :   “ British Journal of Industrial Relations ” , 29 (2): 149-76.

5.      Legge, Karen. (1978) : “ Power, Innovation and Problem Solving in Personnel Management ” : McGraw Hill.

6.      Legge, Karen. (1995): “ HRM - Rhetorics and Realities ” : Mac Millan Press Ltd.

7.      Pike, Chris. and Grenham, Mary. (1997) : “ Human Resources Management - The Study Guide ” : ULH Publications.

8.      Poole, M. (1990) :  Editorial : HRM in an international perspective,     “ International Journal of Human Resources Management  ”, 1 (1).

9.      Sisson, Keith. (1990) : “ Introducing the HRM Journal ”, HRM Journal, 1 (1).

10. Sisson, Keith. (1996): “ Personnel Management  A comprehensive guide to theory and practice in Britain ” : Blackwell Publishers.

11. Storey, John. (1987): “ Development in HRM : An Interim Report ”. Warwick Papers in Industrial Relations No: 17, Coventry Industrial Relations Research Unit.

12. Storey, John. (1992) : “ Developments in the management of Human Relations ”, Oxford : Blackwell.

13. Storey, John. and Sisson, Keith. (1996): “ Managing Human Resources and Industrial Relations ” : Open University Press.

14. Storey, John. and Sisson, Keith. (1996) : “ Limits to Transformation: HRM in the British Context ” : Industrial Research Journal, 2, (1).

15. Torrington, Derek. and Hall, Laura. (1995): “ Personnel Management HRM in Action ” : Prentice Hall Europe.

16. Walton, R. E.  (1985) : “ From control to commitment in the workplace ” : Harvard Business Review, March - April. 76-84.

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• Published: 05 July 2024

Exploring the ecological security evaluation of water resources in the Yangtze River Basin under the background of ecological sustainable development

• Jie-Rong Zhou 1   na1 ,
• Xiao-Qing Li 1   na1 ,
• Xin Yu 1 , 2 ,
• Tian-Cheng Zhao 1 &
• Wen-Xi Ruan 3  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  15475 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Environmental social sciences

The Yangtze River (hereafter referred to as the YZR), the largest river in China, is of paramount importance for ensuring water resource security. The Yangtze River Basin (hereafter referred to as the YRB) is one of the most densely populated areas in China, and complex human activities have a significant impact on the ecological security of water resources. Therefore, this paper employs theories related to ecological population evolution and the Driving Force-Pressure-State-Impact-Response (DPSIR) model to construct an indicator system for the ecological security of water resources in the YRB. The report evaluates the ecological security status of water resources in each province of the YRB from 2010 to 2019, clarifies the development trend of its water resource ecological security, and proposes corresponding strategies for regional ecological security and coordinated economic development. According to the results of the ecological population evolution competition model, the overall indicator of the ecological security of water resources in the YRB continues to improve, with the safety level increasing annually. Maintaining sound management of water resources in the YRB is crucial for sustainable socioeconomic development. To further promote the ecological security of water resources in the YRB and the coordinated development of the regional economy, this paper proposes policy suggestions such as promoting the continuous advancement of sustainable development projects, actively adjusting industrial structure, continuously enhancing public environmental awareness, and actively participating in international ecological construction and seeking cooperation among multiple departments.

Introduction

Water is the primary resource for sustaining living organisms and also an important contributor to the ecological environment and the global economy. However, the current status of water resources is facing formidable challenges owing to rapid global population growth, sustained economic development, and extreme climatic conditions triggered by climate change. According to reports from the World Economic Forum and the United Nations, currently, over 2 billion people worldwide inhabit water-scarce regions, a figure projected to increase to as much as 3.5 billion by the year 2025. Approximately a quarter of the global population is confronting a “water stress” crisis, with water scarcity issues gradually becoming commonplace, defying prior expectations 1 . The report assessed the water risks in almost 200 countries and regions. Seventeen regions and countries around the world consume more than 80% of the available water supply, putting them at risk of experiencing severe water scarcity. The scarcity, uneven distribution, and deteriorating environmental quality of water resources have emerged as significant impediments to human sustainable development and societal progress, posing severe threats to water resource security across various regions. Consequently, there is an urgent imperative to engage in interdisciplinary research and foster collaborative innovation to devise scientifically sound water resource management strategies, thereby advancing the societal attainment of sustainable development goals.

Water resources are a strategic asset for ensuring economic and social development. Water is not only a fundamental element for human survival but also a crucial guarantee for economic and social development. If industry is the foundation of the national economy, then water is its “lifeblood”, essential for the development of all industries. As the largest river in China, the YZR originates from the Qinghai‒Tibet Plateau, traverses three major economic zones, and finally flows into the East China Sea. The YZR the world’s third-longest river and also has the widest basin area in China, accounting for approximately 36% of the country's total water resources. Thus, it is one of China’s most critical rivers. The YZR runs through eleven regions, including an autonomous region, eight provinces, and two municipalities directly under the central government, namely, Qinghai Province, the Tibet Autonomous Region, Yunnan Province, Sichuan Province, Hunan Province, Hubei Province, Jiangxi Province, Anhui Province, Jiangsu Province, Chongqing Municipality, and Shanghai Municipality. Due to the complex terrain and low population density in the Tibet Autonomous Region, human activities in the area have a relatively minor impact on water resource ecological security. Considering the integrity of administrative divisions, this paper selects ten provinces (municipalities), namely, Qinghai, Yunnan, Sichuan, Hunan, Hubei, Jiangxi, Anhui, Jiangsu, Chongqing, and Shanghai, as the research area, representing the YRB as the research object. The YRB currently has hundreds of millions of residents, meaning that the supply and demand of water resources in the basin are crucial for people’s livelihoods and industrial and agricultural production. As one of the most economically developed regions in China, the YRB has important economic centres and industrial bases. The rational utilization and management of water resources are crucial for the economic development of this region. Assessing the security of water resources in the YRB is the foundation for ensuring high-quality development in this area. To actively address the challenges posed by water security issues and achieve sustainable development, it is essential to prioritize and resolve water security challenges 2 .

By investigating research progress on water resource security both domestically and internationally, it has been found that the majority of studies primarily focus on the ecological system aspect, while a minority are based on the social attributes of water resources. Particularly within the realm of human–water relationships 3 , research examining the impact of socioeconomic factors on water resource ecological security from temporal and spatial perspectives is relatively limited. This study introduces the Lotka–Volterra biological concept to explore the competitive or symbiotic relationships between two populations concerning ecological resources within the same temporal and spatial context. Here, we assume that the changes in socioeconomic factors have an impact on the ecological security of water resources, and at the same time, the continuous improvement of water resource ecological security is also a sign of the advancement of socioeconomic development. The two mutually influence each other. Meanwhile, the water resource ecosystem possesses a certain degree of resilience, meaning that it can recover to a certain level through natural restoration or human intervention after being damaged to a certain extent. Building upon this foundation, the DPSIR model is employed to establish a symbiotic assessment index system for socioeconomic factors and water resources. The entropy weight method was utilized to calculate the weights of the indicators. Furthermore, the Lotka–Volterra coexistence model was employed to conduct an in-depth evaluation of the ecological security of water resources in the YRB from 2010 to 2019. The results indicate that during the period of 2010–2015, the ecological security status of water resources in the YRB was highly sensitive and even approached a dangerous state. However, with national governance and policy adjustments, the ecological security of water resources in the YRB has shown a trend of orderly recovery, currently stabilizing at a state of security or near-security. Nevertheless, challenges still exist in the management of water resource ecological security. It is vital not only to maintain and protect the YRB but also to further research and safeguard other water source areas. In summary, future efforts to govern and maintain the ecological security of water resources will be arduous, requiring the collaborative participation and governance of multiple stakeholders. Establishing a sound management system and calling for concerted efforts from the entire society to protect the YZR are crucial. Active participation in comprehensive ecological security protection projects in the YRB is essential. This lays the groundwork for constructing a healthier and more sustainable water resource ecological security management system.

Research progress at domestic and abroad

Interspecific competition model foundation—logistic model.

The logistic curve, also known as the “S-shaped curve, ” is a graphical representation of the growth pattern of a population 4 . This logistic growth model was constructed by Verhulst 5 . The logistic model describes the development of many phenomena in nature, showing continuous growth within a certain period 6 . Generally, in the initial stages of species development, the population grows rapidly. After a certain period, the growth rate reaches its peak. Due to internal factors, the rate gradually slows until it no longer increases, reaching a stable state at the limit. This process of changing population size is referred to as a finite growth process, namely, the logistic growth process. According to the research results of scholars such as Haibo et al. 7 , Lingyun and Jun 8 , and Tao 9 , the basic interspecies competition model, the logistic model, is represented by the following equation:

The constant \({\upgamma } > 0\) in the equation represents the self-intrinsic growth rate of the population, indicating the maximum growth rate of a single population without external environmental limitations. This variable reflects the difference between the average birth rate and the average death rate of individuals in a population who are not subjected to external inhibitory effects. This constant reveals the intrinsic growth characteristics of a species population. The parameter K reflects the abundance of available resources within an ecosystem. When the population size K of a species equals K, the population will no longer grow. Therefore, the K value represents the maximum number of individuals of a species that the ecosystem environment can accommodate, also known as the carrying capacity.

According to the logistic equation, we can observe that the relative growth rate of a population is proportional to the remaining resource capacity in the ecological system environment. When the remaining resources are abundant, the relative growth rate of the species population is high. This phenomenon, where the rate of population growth slows as population density gradually increases, is known as density-dependent regulation. As the ecological system capacity K approaches infinity, the growth rate of the population approaches exponential growth, and this change in the population growth curve is known as the logistic curve.

Lotka–Volterra ecological model

In 1925, Lotka introduced a significant model in his research titled “Elements of Physical Biology”, the predator‒prey interaction model. This model quantitatively elucidates the interactions between organisms 10 . In 1926, Volterra, in his study “Variazionie fluttuazioni del numero d’individui in specie animali conviventi,” described the population dynamics of two interacting species in the biological realm 11 . These contributions laid the theoretical foundation for interspecific competition models and significantly influenced the development of modern ecological competition theories.

The interactions between species can be classified into three main types: competitive relationships, predator–prey relationships, and mutualistic cooperation relationships 12 . The Lotka–Volterra model was initially developed to describe predator‒prey relationships. However, with the increasingly widespread application of differential equation theory, this ecological model has evolved to encompass a broader range of applicability.

• DPSIR model

In 1993, the research group OECD innovatively proposed the DPSIR model, which is the “driving force-pressure-state-influence-response” model based on previous research models and has since been widely promoted in policy-making and research. Combining the characteristics of both the DSR (Driving Force-State-Response) and PSR frameworks, the DPSIR model effectively reflects causal relationships within systems, integrating elements such as resources, development, environment, and human health. As a result, it is considered a suitable method for evaluating watershed ecological security.

Consistent with the PSR framework, the DPSIR model organizes information and relevant indicators based on causal relationships with the aim of establishing a chain of causality: driving force (D)-pressure (P)-state (S)-impact (I)-response (R). In this context, “Driving Force (D)” primarily refers to potential factors reflecting changes in the health of the water cycle system, such as socioeconomic and population growth. “Pressure (P)” mainly refers to the impacts on the structure and functioning of the water cycle system, such as the utilization of water resources. “State (S)” represents changes in the water cycle system resulting from the combined effects of driving forces and pressures, serving as the starting point for impact and response analysis. “Impact (I)” reflects the effects of the hydrological cycle system on human health and social development. “Response (R)” refers to the feedback provided by the water cycle system to driving forces and pressures.

This model describes the causal chain between activities conducted by humans and the water environment, illustrating the mutually constraining and influencing processes between the two. It can encompass elements such as society, economy, and environment to indicate the threats posed by social, economic, and human activities to watershed ecological security. It can also utilize response indicators to demonstrate the feedback of the environment to society resulting from human activities and their impacts, as shown in Fig.  1 13 .

DPSIR model framework.

Overview of water resource ecological security

Water resources are a vital strategic asset for sustainable development and a key factor influencing human survival and socioeconomic development. The security of water resources is intricately linked to national economies and social stability 14 , 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 . As the population and economy grow rapidly, as well as due to the influence of climate change, water scarcity and deterioration of the water environment have become increasingly prevalent, posing a critical constraint to human survival and development 19 . Currently, research on water resource ecological security issues primarily revolves around the following three aspects.

The first aspect involves the evaluation of the water resources carrying capacity (hereafter referred to as the WRCC) and vulnerability.

Regarding the WRCC, some studies consider that the WRCC implies the need for water resources to sustain a healthy societal system 20 . Other researchers argue that the WRCC is the maximum threshold for sustaining human activities 21 .

In terms of calculation methods, various quantification methods for the WRCC have gradually emerged. For example, Qu and Fan 22 considered the available water volume in water demand, national economic sectors and the ecological environment. They employed the traditional trend approach to obtain the population and development scales of industry and agriculture. Zhou Fulei adopted the entropy weight method, an objective weight determination method, to determine the weights of each evaluation indicator, utilized the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) to adjust the weights, constructed composite weights, and then used the TOPSIS model to evaluate the water resources carrying capacity of Qingdao city from 2015 to 2021 23 . Ma et al. 24 and Xiong et al. 25 analysed and evaluated the WRCC using the entropy weight method and provided suggestions for regional sustainable development. Wang et al. 26 , under the traditional TOPSIS model, used an improved structural entropy weighting method to determine the weights of evaluation indicators. They then constructed a grey-weighted TOPSIS model using a grey correlation matrix to specifically evaluate the current state of the agricultural WRCC in Anhui Province. Zhang X and Duan X combined the weights obtained from the entropy and CRITIC methods using the geometric mean method. They applied these combined weights to a model integrating grey relational analysis (GRA), the technique for order preference by similarity to an ideal solution (TOPSIS), and the coupling coordination degree model (CCDM) to calculate the evaluation value of the water resource carrying capacity 27 . Zhang and Tan 28 and Fu et al. 29 separately used optimization models and projection tracking models to evaluate the WRCC in their study areas and conducted comprehensive assessments of the regional WRCC. Gong and Jin 30 , Meng et al. 31 , Wang et al. 32 , and Gao et al. 33 applied fuzzy comprehensive evaluation methods to assess the influencing factors of the WRCC by establishing a fuzzy comprehensive evaluation matrix. On this basis, they analysed the factors affecting the WRCC and evaluated and predicted the future carrying capacity of water resources in the study area. Additionally, other methods have been employed, such as multidimensional regulation 34 , neural network genetic algorithms 35 , 36 , multi-index evaluation models 37 , and nonparametric analysis models 38 .

Ait-Aoudia and Berezowska-Azzag 39 conducted an assessment of the WRCC to analyse the balance between domestic demand and water supply. To assess the WRCC of specific regions, the assessment factors were determined by evaluating the relevant factors of water usage and availability. The conceptual framework for assessing the capacity of water resources was developed based on the supply–demand relationship. Yan et al. 40 focused on the previous decade’s regional water resource data of Anhui Province in China. They constructed a framework for the Driving Force-Pressure-State-Impact-Response Management (DPSIRM) model and conducted a comprehensive evaluation of the WRCC using the entropy weight method and variable weight theory. Based on the derived comprehensive evaluation values and incorporating the modified Gray–Markov combined forecasting, they made predictions about the local WRCC for the coming years. In 2020, Zhengqian 41 discussed the concept and research methods of regional WRCC. The research methodology has evolved from a singular and static approach to a dynamic, multilevel, and comprehensive study with various indicators. Jiajun et al. 42 , starting from a systemic perspective, studied the coordinated development relationships among China’s economy, social development, ecological environment, and water resources. They applied the WRCC Comprehensive Evaluation Model, calculating the comprehensive evaluation index for specific years based on relevant data. This allowed them to describe the WRCC status of provinces and regions in China, providing a comprehensive analysis and evaluation of China’s WRCC. Ren et al. 43 introduced the concept of biological metabolism to the regional WRCC and proposed the theory of regional water resource metabolism. Additionally, they established an evaluation indicator system for the WRCC considering regional water resource characteristics, socioeconomic systems, and sustainable development principles.

Raskin et al. 44 assessed the extent of water resource security by using the proportion of water extraction relative to the total water resources, defined as the water resource vulnerability index. Rui 45 constructed a water resource vulnerability model based on the theory of mutation series. They utilized the principles of mutation series to redefine grading standards and assessed the vulnerability status of water resources in Shanxi Province from 2004 to 2016. The aim was to offer technical assistance for the scientific management of water resources.

The second aspect involves the measurement of the sustainable utilization and efficiency of regional water resources.

Over the last few years, numerous domestic researchers have actively conducted research on the sustainable utilization of water resources, focusing primarily on two aspects:

First, research on evaluation indicator systems for the sustainable utilization of water resources should be conducted. Li Zhijun, Xiang Yang, and others addressed the lack of connection between water resource ecology and socioeconomic development in traditional water resource ecological footprint methods. They introduced the water resource ecological benefit ratio and analysed the water resource security and sustainable development status through an improved water resource energy value ecological footprint method 46 . Zhang et al. 47 established a fuzzy comprehensive evaluation model based on entropy weight, providing recommendations for the sustainable utilization of water resources in Guangxi Province. Liu Miliang, aiming for sustainable development, quantitatively analysed the current situation and influencing factors. Based on the DPSIR model, they established an evaluation system for the sustainable utilization of water resources 48 .

Second, in terms of evaluation methods and research on the sustainable utilization of water resources, Yunling et al. 49 constructed an evaluation indicator system for the WRCC to assess the comprehensive water resource carrying status in Hebei Province. Xuexiu et al. 50 , based on both domestic and international research on water resource pressure theory, analysed the connotation of water resource pressure, introduced commonly used methods for water resource pressure evaluation, and provided a comprehensive overview and comparative analysis of water resource pressure evaluation methods from aspects such as calculation principles, processes, and applications. Guohua et al. 51 established an entropy-based fuzzy comprehensive evaluation model of water resource allocation harmony and evaluated the water resource allocation status of various districts and counties in Xi’an city. Shiklomanov 52 used indicators such as available water resources, industrial and agricultural water usage, and household water consumption to assess water resource security.

The SBM-DEA model was used by Deng et al. 53 to appraise the efficiency of water resource utilization across nearly all provinces in China. They proposed factors influencing water resource utilization efficiency, including the added value of the agricultural sector, per capita water usage, the output-to-pollution ratio of polluting units, and import–export dependency. Yaguai and Lingyan 54 employed a two-stage model combining superefficiency DEA and Tobit to assess water resource efficiency in China from 2004 to 2014. They analysed regional differences and influencing factors. Mei et al. 55 separately used stochastic frontier analysis and data envelopment analysis to measure the absolute and relative efficiencies of water resource utilization in 14 cities in Liaoning Province. They employed a kernel density estimation model to analyse the dynamic evolution patterns of water resource utilization efficiency. Xiong et al. 56 adopted an iterative correction approach to modify and apply water resource utilization efficiency evaluation models based on single assessment methods such as entropy, mean square deviation, and deviation methods.

The third aspect involves investigating the relationship between water resource security and other societal systems.

Shanshan et al. 57 laid the foundation for the rational construction of an urbanization and water resource indicator system. Through the establishment of a dynamic coupled model, they conducted an analytical study on the harmonized development trends between the urbanization system and the water resource system in Beijing. Wei 58 utilized a coordination degree model to explore the coupling relationship between the quality of new urbanization and water resource security in Guangdong Province. Caizhi and Xiaodong 59 combining coupled scheduling models with exploratory spatial data analysis and conducted an analysis of the security conditions and spatial correlations among water resources, energy, and food in China. Additionally, Xia et al. 60 employed the Mann–Kendal test method to study the degrees of matching between water resources and socioeconomic development in six major geographical regions of China.

A review of the relevant literature reveals that scholars have explored the issues of water resource ecological security and regional socioeconomic development from various perspectives and fields, which is one of the urgent problems to be addressed in the current process of social development. These research findings not only have learning and reference significance but also provide insights for the writing of this paper.

Summarizing the achievements of previous research, the essence of water resource security evaluation mainly includes three aspects: ensuring water quantity, sustainability, and water quality. Evaluation methods include principal component analysis, fuzzy comprehensive evaluation methods, analytic hierarchy processes, and system dynamics modelling methods, among others, among which the analytic hierarchy process has certain advantages in addressing multilevel problems and is widely used in constructing multilevel analysis models. Therefore, this paper introduces the Lotka–Volterra biological concept and continues to explore this topic further. It can effectively combine the relationships between indicators and weights and study the competition or symbiotic relationship between two populations competing for ecological resources in the same time and space context 61 . Drawing from the DPSIR model, this study devises a comprehensive evaluation framework to assess the interdependence of socioeconomic factors and water resources. Through the application of the entropy weight method, this study determines the relative importance of various indices within this framework. Employing the Lotka–Volterra symbiotic model, this research scrutinizes and quantifies the ecological security status of water resources in the YRB from 2010 to 2019. The overarching objective is to furnish technical insights that can catalyse efforts to enhance the ecological security of regional water resources.

Methodology

• Lotka–Volterra symbiosis model

In the 1940s, A. J. Lotka and V. Volterra jointly introduced the Lotka–Volterra model 62 , which serves as a method for studying the relationships between biological populations. Its basic form is as follows:

In the given equation, \({\text{N}}_{1} \left( {\text{t}} \right), {\text{N}}_{2} \left( {\text{t}} \right)\) denote the populations of species \({\text{S}}_{1}\) and \({\text{S}}_{2}\) , respectively. \({\text{K}}_{1}\) and \({\text{K}}_{2}\) represent the carrying capacities of populations \({\text{S}}_{1}\) and \({\text{S}}_{2}\) in their respective environments. \({\text{r}}_{1}\) and \({\text{r}}_{2}\) represent the growth rates of populations \({\text{S}}_{1}\) and \({\text{S}}_{2}\) , respectively. \(\alpha\) denotes the competitive intensity coefficient of species \({\text{S}}_{2}\) on species \({\text{S}}_{1}\) , while \(\beta\) represents the competitive intensity coefficient of species \({\text{S}}_{1}\) on species \({\text{S}}_{2}\) .

By replacing the socioeconomic relationships within the entire YRB with the provinces within the basin, the Lotka–Volterra model is introduced into the regional water resource ecological security assessment. This allows for the construction of a symbiotic model between socioeconomic factors and water resources within the YRB. The specific formula is as follows:

In the equation, \({\text{F}}\left( {\text{k}} \right)\) denotes the comprehensive socioeconomic development status, \({\text{E}}\left( {\text{k}} \right)\) signifies the comprehensive development status of water resources, \({\text{C}}\) represents the ecological environment, \({\text{r}}_{{\text{F}}}\) signifies the socioeconomic growth rate, \({\text{r}}_{{\text{E}}}\) represents the growth rate of water resources, \(\alpha\) denotes the coefficient of water resources’ impact on the socioeconomy, and \(\beta\) denotes the coefficient of the impact of the socioeconomy on water resources. Therefore, solving for the coefficients \(\alpha\) and \(\beta\) in the model is essential for examining the interaction between the socioeconomy and water resources. The specific steps for solving the equation are as follows.

Discretizing Eqs. ( 4 ), ( 5 ) yields:

The solution is:

Different values of \(\alpha\) and \(\beta\) correspond to different symbiotic relationships between the socioeconomy and water resources, as illustrated in Fig.  2 .

Symbiotic model between the socioeconomic and water resources in the YRB.

Construction of the DPSIR model and indicator system

To construct a water resource ecological security index system for the 10 provinces in the YRB, this paper is based on the research of relevant scholars and introduces the DPSIR model to evaluate water resource ecological security. This model was proposed to describe the concept of environmental systems and the structure of complex cause-and-effect relationships by the European Environment Agency (EEA) in 1999. It is mainly applied in assessments of ecological security, regional sustainable development, and water resource ecological security.

The establishment of the DPSIR model in this paper is illustrated in Fig.  3 .

DPSIR model.

Generally, the driver (D) in the socioeconomic system tends to improve the environmental and resource states (S), while the economic pressure (P) tends to disrupt the resource and environmental states (S). The states of resources and the environment contribute essential production materials to the socioeconomic system. Simultaneously, drivers (D) and pressures (P) reflect two different aspects of socioeconomic development. Therefore, these factors can indicate the level of socioeconomic development. Based on these definitions, the following indicators are selected to assess the DPSIR model for water resource ecological security. The weights of various indicators calculated through the entropy weight method are presented in Table 1 . A more significant role played by the corresponding indicator in the comprehensive assessment of regional ecological security will have a greater weight.

On this basis, the socioeconomic stress index \({\text{S}}_{{\text{F}}} \left( {\text{k}} \right)\) and water resource stress index \({\text{S}}_{{\text{E}}} \left( {\text{k}} \right)\) are defined as follows:

The comprehensive index between socioeconomic and water resources, also called the symbiosis index \({\text{S}}\left( {\text{k}} \right)\) , is calculated as follows:

According to Eq. ( 14 ), \({\text{S}}\left( {\text{k}} \right) \in \left[ { - \sqrt 2 ,\sqrt 2 } \right]\) , a larger value of A indicates that the symbiotic state between the socioeconomy and water resources is better; conversely, a smaller value of A indicates that the symbiotic state between the two is worse.

The water resources force index can illustrate the direction of the socioeconomic impact on water resources, and the symbiotic index can illustrate the magnitude of the socioeconomic impact on water resources. Therefore, these two indices serve as the basis for evaluating the water resource security status. Formula ( 14 ) implies that the symbiotic index \({\text{S}}\left( {\text{k}} \right)\) falls within the range of \(\left[ { - \sqrt 2 ,\sqrt 2 } \right]\) . A larger numerical value indicates a better symbiotic relationship between the two subsystems, while a smaller value suggests a poorer symbiotic relationship. However, the relationship between the symbiotic index and regional ecological security is not straightforward. Regional ecological security must be judged according to specific criteria grounded in both the measure of symbiosis \({\text{S}}\left( {\text{k}} \right)\) and the ecological force index \({\text{S}}_{{\text{E}}} \left( {\text{k}} \right)\) . This approach comprehensively characterizes the ecological security of the YRB urban agglomeration. In our study, a two-dimensional symbiotic model of socioeconomic–natural ecology is employed to depict the evolution of ecological security under dual-characteristic indices.

Within this model, ecological security is divided into six regions that progress in a sequential manner, conforming to the progressive law of ecological security evolution. In the safe zone, the socioeconomic and natural ecological systems mutually benefit, and both experience robust development. In the subsafe zone, although the natural ecological system is still in a growing state, this occurs at the expense of socioeconomic development, leading to an unstable ecological security status. If the socioeconomic system continues to suffer damage, it falls into the sensitive zone, where the harm to the socioeconomic system outweighs the benefits to the natural ecological system. If this condition persists, both systems enter a state of competition, resulting in harm to both, and they are situated in the danger zone. In unfavourable zones, the socioeconomic system gains weak benefits, while the natural economy suffers damage. If humanity recognizes this situation and takes measures to improve the environment, it may transition from the unfavourable zone to the cautious zone, leading to an improvement in ecological security and potential entry into the safe zone. For ease of analysis and based on the relevant literature 63 , following expert discussions, this study classifies ecological security into six categories corresponding to six ecological security early warning levels, as shown in Table 2 .

Discrimination of water resource ecological security levels

The YZR originates from the Qinghai‒Tibet Plateau, considered the “Roof of the World,” traversing three major economic regions before ultimately flowing into the East China Sea. For our study area, we selected the eight provinces and two municipalities through which the YZR flows. These regions are Shanghai, Jiangsu, Anhui, Jiangxi, Hubei, Hunan, Chongqing, Sichuan, Yunnan, and Qinghai. In the subsequent text, they will be referred to collectively as the YRB. The data for this study primarily originate from statistical yearbooks, water resource bulletins, and development reports spanning the years 2010 to 2019.

According to the criteria for water resource security status presented in Table 2 , the corresponding information is summarized in Table 3 for the years 2011 to 2018, indicating the water resource security status in the YRB during this period. It is observed that from 2011 to 2018, the water resources security status in the YRB initially experienced a decline but later recovered to a secure level. In recent years, the country has not only emphasized economic development but also placed significant importance on environmental protection. Rapid industrial development in earlier years led to an exacerbation of water pollution issues. However, the government promptly recognized this problem and implemented a series of measures to address water pollution. Stringent controls were also imposed on industrial water usage. Consequently, the water resource status quickly returned to a level considered safe.

The water resource security evaluation values obtained using the entropy method range from 0 to 1. Ideally, a value closer to 1 indicates a better water resource security situation, while a value closer to 0 suggests a poorer water resource security situation.

After standardizing the processed data, we can plug them into Eq. ( 15 ) to sequentially obtain the basic indices for socioeconomic, ecological environment, and water resource security in the YRB. The specific process involves substituting the basic indices for socioeconomic, ecological environment, and water resource ecological security into Eqs. ( 12 )–( 14 ). This approach yields comprehensive indices, including the socioeconomic stress index, water resource stress index, and symbiotic degree index. These indices serve as the basis for evaluating the water resource security status in the assessment region, with the water resource stress index and symbiotic degree index being the key indicators.

In the equation, f i represents the comprehensive level of water resource ecological security, \({\text{x}}_{{\text{i}}}^{\prime }\) signifies the standardized values obtained from the original data, and \({\text{w}}_{{\text{i}}}\) denotes the weights assigned to each indicator. When the value of f i falls between 0 and 1, the closer the value is to 1, the better the ecological security of water resources. In contrast, it shows a poorer ecological security status. Similarly, according to this equation, the classification of water resource ecological security can be divided into six categories: 0–0.16 denotes a dangerous state, 0.16–0.32 indicates a deteriorating state, 0.32–0.48 signifies a sensitive state, 0.48–0.64 represents a vigilant state, 0.64–0.8 implies a subsecure state, and 0.8–1.0 corresponds to a safe state. Different levels of water resource ecological security entail varying relationships with the national economy and society. For specific characteristics corresponding to each security level, please refer to Table 4 .

Informed consent statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Evaluation of water resource ecological security levels in the Yangtze River Basin

Overall, the evaluation values of water resource security in the YRB from 2010 to 2019 showed a fluctuating upwards trend (refer to Table 5 ). From 2010 to 2013, the evaluation values fluctuated between 0.2 and 0.4, reaching the lowest level at Grade V. In 2011, the evaluation value was only 0.2201, indicating that during this period, the water resources in the YRB were in an unsafe state, resulting in water scarcity. These results indicate that economic and social development are not being met on a sustainable basis at the watershed scale. In 2014, the water resource security evaluation value for the YRB reached 0.4243, classified as Grade III. Subsequently, there was a significant upwards trend, with the evaluation value reaching 0.6746 in 2017, which was classified as Grade II, indicating a relatively secure state. These results suggest that the water resources of the YRB appeared to be more secure than they were before, and the YRB could essentially fulfil the requirements for sustainable economic and social development at the national level. This upwards trend continued, reaching 0.7215 in 2019. From 2010 to 2019, the water resource security status in the YRB improved from Grade V to Grade II, demonstrating significant improvement. However, it has not yet reached Grade I, indicating that there is still room for improvement in the future.

The DPSIR model was used to analyse the reasons for the improvement in the ecological security of water resources in the YRB based on five criteria. Table 5 shows that the evaluation values for driving forces significantly increased from 2010 to 2019, while the values for pressure and response slightly increased, and those for state and impact fluctuated, resulting in a slight overall improvement. Specifically, the evaluation values for driving forces fluctuated from 0.0543 to 0.2370, indicating the significant contributions of indicators such as per capita GDP, the proportion of primary industry, population density, and the urbanization rate to the enhancement of water resource security. The assurance provided by economic and social development for water resource security is evident. The evaluation value for pressure fluctuated from 0.0403 to 0.1149, suggesting a reduction in pressure on water resources from economic development, agricultural and industrial production, and residents' lifestyles, leading to a decrease in basin water pollution and an alleviation of water quality deterioration. The response increased from 0.0527 to 0.1665, indicating relatively significant growth. These results suggest that measures taken by the government and society to address water resource issues have been effective, resulting in improvements in both the quantity and quality of water resources and an enhancement of water resource security levels. The evaluation value for impact fluctuated from 0.0261 to 0.0349, indicating a standardized industrial wastewater discharge volume and an improvement in water resource security conditions. The evaluation value for state initially decreased from 0.1633 to a minimum of 0.0656 before increasing to approximately 0.17. These results suggest that, considering indicators such as per capita sewage discharge and per capita water consumption, the status of water resources initially declined but gradually improved after governance measures were implemented.

In summary, from 2010 to 2019, the improvement in water resource security in the YRB can be attributed mainly to the enhancement of driving forces and response indicators. Economic and social development has provided ample assurance for water resource security, while water resources have imposed constraints on economic and social development to a certain extent. In the YRB, the current governance of water resources has reached a relatively high level, making it challenging to achieve significant breakthroughs in the future. The efficiency of water use in the existing industrial structure is difficult to substantially improve. Therefore, adjusting the industrial structure to enhance water resource security is a future research focus. These findings align with the conclusions of other domestic scholars. For instance, a study by Xiaotao and Fa-wen 64 revealed that water consumption per unit of production energy and agricultural production in the YRB contributed the same proportion of GDP. They argued that future water conservation efforts should focus on adjusting industrial structures and developing water-saving technologies. Another study by Wang Hao revealed that the water resource utilization efficiency in the YRB was second only to that in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region 65 . These authors suggested that the potential for mitigating the contradiction between water supply and demand through deep water conservation is limited.

According to the above methods and steps, further calculations were conducted to determine the water resource ecological security status of each province in the YRB from 2010 to 2019, as shown in Tables 6 and 7 . Information gleaned from Tables 6 and 7 suggests that the overall improvement in the water resource ecological security status of each province in the YRB from 2010 to 2019 was significant. There was a discernible improvement from 2014 to 2015, with a clear boundary line. Before 2015, the water resources in most areas were relatively sensitive, and some regions even experienced deterioration. However, after 2015, almost all areas reached subsafe or safe states.

Calculation results of the water resource security status of each province in the YRB from 2010 to 2019.

Trends in water resource ecological security in the Yangtze River Basin

According to Eq. ( 15 ), and by empirically examining the ecological status of water resources in the YRB from 2010 to 2019, the comprehensive levels of the ecological environment, socioeconomic development, and water resources in ten provinces of the YRB were obtained, as shown in Fig.  4 .

Development of the basic indices in the YRB.

The information gleaned from Table 4 suggests that the economic development in the YRB from 2010 to 2019 showed a positive trend, increasing from 0.09 to 0.35. This increase is attributed to the favourable current economic development environment and robust support from national directives. Policies such as the 2013 “Guiding Opinions on Building China’s New Economic Support Belt Based on the Yangtze River”, the 2018 speech at the Symposium on Deepening the Development of the YZR Economic Belt, the “Development Plan for the Huaihe River Ecological Economic Belt”, and the 2019 “Outline of the Development Plan for the Regional Integration of the Yangtze River Delta” have played crucial roles in driving industrial restructuring and achieving quality economic development in the YRB.

The ecological environment comprehensive level in the YRB exhibited a fluctuating development trend from 2010 to 2019, resembling an “M” shape, increasing from 0.24 to 0.37 with a relatively small amplitude. Ecological civilization construction, as a fundamental national policy, has provided important guidance for the economic development of the YRB. This development includes intensified efforts in the treatment of industrial pollutants and urban wastewater, along with increased levels of regional afforestation and greenery. Notably, significant improvements were observed in indicators such as per capita park green space, the urban green space ratio, and the harmless disposal of waste in the YRB in 2015.

The comprehensive level of water resources in the YRB increased slightly from 0.19 to 0.20 from 2010 to 2019. Although there was an upwards trend, the magnitude of the increase was minimal, indicating an unfavourable water resource status in the YRB. The primary factor in this slight increase is the accelerated consumption of water resources. As a part of the ecological environment, a decrease in the comprehensive level of water resources is also an important factor restricting the overall improvement of the ecological environment. In future development, the YRB should leverage favourable national policies to promote breakthrough development in the regional economy. Simultaneously, efforts should be intensified towards the protection and management of regional water resources and the ecological environment, striving to enhance the comprehensive level of water resources and the ecological environment.

Based on the previously calculated comprehensive socioeconomic, ecological environment, and water resource levels, the stress indices for socioeconomic and water resources, as well as the symbiotic index for the YRB during the years 2010–2019, were computed, and the results are presented in Fig.  5 .

Development status of comprehensive indices in the YRB.

Figure  5 clearly shows that, except for the years 2012, 2014, and 2016, the impact of water resources on the socioeconomy remained consistently positive, indicating that during this period, water resources positively contributed to economic growth. The water resources force index has been consistently positive in recent years, signifying the promotion by socioeconomic development, with a relatively minor hindrance from socioeconomic development during this period. The symbiotic index values between the two factors were 1.05, 1.24, 1.40, 1.26, and 1.07 in the years 2011, 2013, 2015, 2017, and 2018, respectively, reaching an optimal state of mutual benefit and symbiosis. However, a slight decline was observed in subsequent years, suggesting the need for further improvement.

Spatial pattern analysis of water resource ecological security in the Yangtze River Basin

Using the ArcGIS10.4 tool, which is provided by the Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc (commonly known as ESRI), several representative years were selected to visualize the ecological security status of water resources in the YRB. The computational results are visualized in Figs.  6 , 7 and 8 .

Ecological security status of water resources in the YRB in 2011(map were generated with software ArcMap10.4 http://www.esri.com/ ).

According to the division standards for administrative regions along the YZR in 2014, the YRB studied in this paper can be categorized into three main regions: the upper, middle, and lower reaches. The upper reach includes three provinces: Qinghai, Sichuan, and Yunnan. The middle reach comprises four provinces and municipalities: Chongqing, Hunan, Hubei, and Jiangxi. The lower reach consists of three provinces and municipalities: Anhui, Jiangsu, and Shanghai.

Figures  6 , 7 and 8 show that from 2011 to 2019, the overall ecological security status of water resources in the YRB transitioned from “deteriorating,” “sensitive,” and “vigilant” states to “subsecure” and “safe” states. The range of comprehensive evaluation values for water resource ecological security (hereafter referred to as evaluation values) increased from 0.16–0.64 to 0.64–1.

As illustrated in Fig.  6 , notable disparities were present in the distribution of the ecological security status of water resources among provinces and municipalities in the YRB, with the ecological security status of water resources in the upper and lower reaches of the YZR notably superior to that in the middle reaches. The data indicate that the water resource utilization efficiency levels in the upper and lower reaches of the YZR were greater than that in the middle reaches in 2011, exhibiting a pattern of high efficiency at both ends and lower efficiency in the middle. Regions with high comprehensive water resource utilization efficiency are mainly concentrated in the upper and lower reaches of the YZR.

Although the upstream regions have limited economic strength, they also have relatively fewer water-intensive industries. Meanwhile, these regions actively respond to green development policies and prioritize energy conservation and environmental protection industries. Underdeveloped regions can also achieve higher water resource efficiency by controlling total water consumption and improving the output of water per unit used.

The areas with low comprehensive utilization efficiency of water resources are primarily concentrated in the middle reaches of the YZR, where the proportions of traditional industries such as steel, chemicals, and nonferrous metals are relatively large, leading to high industrial water consumption and consequently the lowest efficiency in water resource utilization. Provinces such as Hunan and Hubei, with large populations and rapid economic development, exhibit high demands for water resources, resulting in increased regional water resource consumption and persistently high per capita sewage discharge indicators.

The downstream regions of the YZR boast strong economic progress, with high levels of industrial technological innovation and governance capabilities. This region exhibits the highest level of economic development, which can drive improvements in the utilization efficiency of water resources. Consequently, Shanghai and Jiangsu provinces have the highest water resource utilization efficiency. As a result, the ecological security status of water resources in Shanghai has improved rapidly.

As shown in Fig.  7 , in 2015, the overall ecological security status of water resources notably improved in the YRB. The fundamental reason for this improvement is that in recent years, regions across the basin have recognized the importance of the ecological environment for overall development. They have gradually undertaken regional industrial restructuring and upgrading and accelerated urbanization and simultaneously emphasized the preservation of water resources and the environment. The three major regions exhibit regional disparities in water resource utilization efficiency due to differences in geographical environment, economic foundation, and industrial structure. In terms of the total water consumption of each province and municipality, agricultural water usage accounts for more than half of the total water consumption, which is significantly greater than the water usage in the industrial, domestic, and ecological sectors. However, compared to other industries' output values, the overall water resource utilization efficiency in agriculture is lower. Therefore, regions with greater proportions of primary industry output tend to have lower water resource utilization efficiency.

Ecological security status of water resources in the YRB in 2015(map were generated with software ArcMap10.4 http://www.esri.com/ ).

The industrialization level in the upstream regions is relatively low, with relatively outdated production technologies. As industrialization progresses, the negative impact on water resources' ecological security is gradually increasing. The industrialization in the middle and lower reaches of the YZR has reached relatively high levels. Control measures have been gradually implemented to manage the resource consumption and environmental pollution generated during the industrial development process. With advancements in technology, the negative impact on water resource ecological security is gradually diminishing. Among these provinces, Hunan Province and Hubei Province in the middle reaches of the YZR experienced the greatest increases in water resource ecological security status, transitioning from “deteriorating” to “subsecure.” The regions in the middle reaches emphasize considering the resource and environmental carrying capacity to ensure the coordination between water resource allocation and regional sustainable development, achieving rational distribution and efficient utilization of water resources within the region.

The lower reaches of the YZR are characterized by developed economies, advanced technologies, and high levels of both urbanization efficiency and water resource efficiency, maintaining harmonious development. This region exhibits the strongest economic development and hosts the highly integrated YZR Delta urban agglomeration. With a solid foundation in secondary and tertiary industries, high levels of technological innovation, and openness, the overall ecological security status of water resources in this region is at a relatively high level.

Across the provinces and municipalities in the YRB, efforts have been intensified to control the discharge of pollutants such as phosphorus, leading to reduced pollutant emissions and improved water quality. Moreover, improvements in water resource allocation have been made, reducing the risks associated with pollution factors through increased water volume and dilution effects, thereby ensuring the supply and safety of drinking water downstream of Shanghai. The stable proportion of GDP in the YZR Economic Belt indicates a balanced relationship between economic development and the ecological protection of water resources. While maintaining economic growth, downstream cities also prioritize environmental protection and water resource management.

Figure  8 clearly shows that the overall ecological security status of water resources in the YRB has been developing at an accelerated pace, trending towards overall coordinated development by 2019, with mutual promotion between socioeconomic and water resources. This trend can be attributed to various factors. This positive influence is exemplified in agricultural water use efficiency, which has improved in recent years due to various factors, such as changes in agricultural production methods, organizational structures, cropping patterns, and water-saving practices. As a result, the negative impact of the proportion of the output value of the primary industry on water resource efficiency has been mitigated.

Ecological security status of water resources in the YRB in 2019(map were generated with software ArcMap10.4 http://www.esri.com/ ).

However, despite efforts, China still faces serious water pollution issues, with poor water environmental quality and significant pollution discharge loads from industrial, agricultural, and domestic sources. These factors pose severe challenges to the ecological security of water resources. To address these challenges, China has formulated a series of plans aimed at strengthening water pollution prevention and control and ensuring national water resource ecological security. These plans were officially announced and implemented after 2015.

Based on the analysis results, each province and city in the YRB should embrace a people-centred approach to new urbanization and the scientific development concept of water resource protection and utilization. While focusing on promoting new urbanization construction, efforts should be intensified to enhance ecological environmental protection and explore new paths for coordinated regional economic development and resource utilization. Provinces and cities should rely on the golden waterway of the YZR to establish cross-regional and cross-provincial basin cooperation mechanisms and long-term mechanisms, actively promoting coordinated development among the three major regions of the YRB.

Against the backdrop of the global environmental crisis, the Lancang-Mekong River, as Asia’s largest transboundary river, also faces certain water security issues. Specifically, the “status” of water resources is relatively low, as manifested by the polluted state of the water quality of the river. Additionally, factors such as the uneven distribution of precipitation within the year and the weakness of storage facilities such as wetlands and reservoirs contribute to seasonal water shortages and serious water disasters in the basin. Moreover, the response levels of basin countries are limited, and there is room for improvement in the level of water resource management. Countries in the Lancang-Mekong River Basin are in a stage of rapid economic and social development, and population growth, economic activities, and changes in land use (such as urbanization) will have direct or indirect impacts on water resources in the basin. The Ganges River Basin faces similar ecological and environmental problems. In recent years, India’s economic prosperity and urbanization process have had significant impacts on the Ganges River Basin. Soil erosion and insufficient drinking water under population pressure have plagued the people of the Ganges River Basin. Additionally, the serious problem of surface water pollution caused by the discharge of industrial and domestic wastewater has led to a certain degree of land salinization.

Climate change, land use, human consumption of water resources, and government management of water resources are all factors that can directly or indirectly affect the water security situation in a region. Given that the Lancang-Mekong River spans China and five Southeast Asian countries, its water resource ecological security is particularly influenced by socioeconomic factors. Therefore, we believe that the methods we propose are equally applicable to the evaluation of water resource ecological security in this basin. By introducing the Lotka–Volterra symbiotic model and using the DPSIR model to construct a system of evaluation indicators for the symbiosis between socioeconomic factors and water resources in the study area, this system will help us to thoroughly assess the water resource ecological security of the Lancang-Mekong River Basin and provide a scientific basis for the implementation of region-specific water security strategies. These approaches are highly important for promoting regional sustainable development and maintaining basin ecological security.

Research has revealed that over a decade ago, the water resource ecological security status in the YRB initially fell within a relatively poor range. However, with close attention from the government and the implementation of various regulations, as well as active participation from the public in protecting the YZR, the water resource ecological security status in the YRB has improved rapidly. It is now generally maintained at levels of safety or near safety, with prospects for further improvement in the future. Comprehensive analysis of data from 2010 to 2019 revealed continuous trends in improvement in water resource security. To further enhance water resource security, we propose the following recommendations:

The industrial structure should be adjusted to achieve sustainable utilization of water resources. Governments should strongly support the green economy and environmental protection industries by providing tax incentives for enterprises, encouraging them to invest in water resource management and protection projects. By establishing corresponding financial funds and reward mechanisms, more social forces can be guided to participate, achieving a mutually beneficial outcome for water resource security and economic development. The Chinese government has called for all citizens to actively respond to carbon peak and carbon neutrality strategies and has formulated specific and feasible emission reduction plans. Enterprises are encouraged to adopt clean production technologies to improve resource utilization efficiency and achieve carbon emission reduction goals. There should be a focus on strengthening sewage resource utilization, integrating atypical water sources into unified water resource allocation, and encouraging locations with the necessary conditions to fully utilize unconventional water sources. Water-deficient cities should actively expand the scale and scope of recycled water utilization. The principles of demand-driven supply, water quality division, and local utilization should be followed to promote the use of recycled water in industrial production, municipal miscellaneous use, land greening, ecological replenishment, and other areas.

Focusing on agricultural water use and preventing water source pollution. As one of the main rice-producing regions in China, to further enhance water resource security in the YRB, agricultural measures should be taken. With respect to water conservation, water-saving irrigation techniques combined with smart irrigation systems should be adopted to achieve precise irrigation and improve water resource utilization efficiency. Moreover, enhancing rainwater collection and utilization by establishing rainwater collection systems and storing water for agricultural irrigation can effectively utilize rainwater resources and alleviate irrigation pressure during the dry season.

Agricultural pesticide use is also an issue that cannot be ignored. Excessive use and improper handling of pesticides can often lead to serious water pollution, posing a threat to the water resource security of the YRB. To address this issue, we need to strengthen pesticide use management, promote scientific pesticide application techniques, reduce excessive pesticide use, raise farmers' environmental awareness to prevent pesticide waste from being directly discharged into water bodies, and strengthen water quality monitoring and treatment to promptly detect and address pesticide pollution problems.

Improve people’s education level and strengthen environmental awareness. As people's living standards and education levels improve, concerns about ecological water security have increased, and higher demands are being placed on water safety and quality. The incomplete assessment and mismanagement of water resources, coupled with wasteful practices, have led to water resources becoming uncontrollable variables. Recognizing, measuring, and expressing the value of water and incorporating it into decision-making processes are particularly important against the backdrop of increasingly scarce water resources, population growth, and the pressures of climate change. It is essential to achieve sustainable and equitable water resource management and meet the development goals of the United Nations' 2030 Agenda.

Actively participate in international ecological construction. According to Maximo Torero of the FAO, strengthening water resource protection and management requires enhanced cooperation among countries, the integration of various stakeholders' interests, multipronged approaches, and the consideration of social, economic, and environmental factors. It also involves a focus on technology, legal frameworks, and overall policy environments. We recommend that governments actively engage in international cooperation projects, sharing experiences and technologies in managing water resources in the YRB while drawing lessons from successful ecological initiatives in other countries. Such cross-border collaboration can foster global ecological sustainability, address global environmental issues collectively, share innovative technologies and research achievements, and achieve global governance of ecological environments.

Data availability

Our data is sourced from the provincial data in the China Statistical Yearbooks from 2011 to 2019 published by the National Bureau of Statistics of China ( https://www.stats.gov.cn/sj/ndsj/ ), as well as the Water Resources Bulletins ( http://www.mwr.gov.cn/sj/tjgb/szygb/ ). Figures  6 , 7 , and 8 were created by us using ArcGIS 10.4 software, which is provided by the Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc. (commonly known as ESRI). Our vector boundary data and the Yangtze River data are sourced from the National Catalogue Service For Geographic Information ( www.webmap.cn ), using the 1:1,000,000 public version of basic geographic information data (2021). The tiled data is processed according to GB/T 13989-2012 “National Fundamental Scale Topographic Map Tiling and Numbering”.

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This research was supported by the Project of Social Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province (No. 22TQC005).

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These authors contributed equally: Jie-Rong Zhou and Xiao-Qing Li.

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Nanjing Xiaozhuang University, Nanjing, 211171, Jiangsu, China

Jie-Rong Zhou, Xiao-Qing Li, Xin Yu & Tian-Cheng Zhao

School of Information Management, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, Jiangsu, China

Wageningen University and Research, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands

Wen-Xi Ruan

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Conceptualization, J.Z. and X.Y.; methodology, J.Z. and X.L.; software, W.R.; writing—original draft preparation, X.L. and X.Y.; writing—review and editing, X.L., X.Y. and J.Z.; visualization, T.Z.; supervision, X.Y.; project administration, X.Y.; funding acquisition, X.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

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Zhou, JR., Li, XQ., Yu, X. et al. Exploring the ecological security evaluation of water resources in the Yangtze River Basin under the background of ecological sustainable development. Sci Rep 14 , 15475 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-65781-z

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-65781-z

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