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More Than a Dozen Ways to Build Movement Into Learning

Physical activity that amplifies learning can have a powerful effect on retention and engagement—it’s also fun.

When researchers at Texas A&M University gave standing desks to 34 high school students, they discovered that after consistent use, standing while learning delivered a significant boost to students’ executive functioning skills—the sorts of cognitive skills that allow kids to manage their time, understand and memorize information, and organize thoughts in writing. Even small amounts of movement, this emerging research revealed, can deliver a positive impact on learning: Neurocognitive testing of the standing students, the pilot study notes, showed a 7 to 14 percent improvement in their cognitive performance, a noteworthy impact for such a simple intervention.

Infusing classrooms with physical activity—or at least the option of some movement, at student discretion—isn’t just good for kids’ bodies, it’s also a powerful tool for improving learning and focus and reducing classroom management issues . And yet, from kindergarten through high school “students spend most of their academic lives at a desk,” says educator Brad Johnson for The Washington Post , an arrangement that is meant to increase their focus and academic productivity, but can actually create kids who are “bored, off-task, disruptive or otherwise disengaged.”

There are many smart, innovative ways to build movement into lessons and the research increasingly supports getting kids moving in schools to promote better physical health, provide the types of breaks that reset our cognitive processes so that we can learn anew, and even link our physical bodies to our cognitive insights to encode learning more deeply. From intentionally aligning curriculum with movement to improve retention, to planning frequent and active brain breaks to clear working memory, here are more than a dozen ways educators and researchers are pairing learning with movement.

INTEGRATING MOVEMENT IN THE CURRICULUM

Incorporating gross and fine motor activities across many subject areas makes a lot of sense, particularly to teach foundational concepts. In math classes, for instance, you can create chalk grids on the playground and have children walk sloped lines, stopping to discuss and walk the line’s “rise” and “run,” or you can use hand and arm gestures to teach a broader range of mathematical concepts like tangents and cosines. Here are a few more ways educators are injecting movement into lessons.

In Science, Becoming a Liquid: Science teacher and instructional coach JaShan Wilson turned social distancing requirements into an opportunity for her students to “use their own bodies to model movements, test phenomena, and engage with the curriculum.”

For lessons on matter and particle movement, for example, she asks students to “act like solids, liquids, or gases,” and then “switch it up as in Simon Says until all students sped up, slowed down, or vibrated in order to represent how matter moves.” For a unit on energy, Wilson’s students examine the transfer of energy by making wave movements with their arms. “The more energy they apply, the higher the amplitude,” Wilson notes. Engaging students in these “human labs,” as Wilson calls them, delivered impressive academic results: Her students did better on formative assessments and “continued to utilize the movements and reference the activities, which showed how they connected the concepts to them permanently.”

Playing Basketball Math: In a six-week study involving 757 Copenhagen elementary school students, researchers had half the students do math while playing basketball. The other half studied math in class as usual, and played basketball solely as a regular gym activity.

The kids who played while doing math did tasks like “counting how many times they could sink a basket from three meters away versus at a one-meter distance,” and then added up the numbers, says Linn Damsgaard , one of the study’s authors. Among the students who played basketball while doing math, the researchers reported a 6 percent boost in math mastery; a 16 percent increase in intrinsic motivation; and a 14 percent improvement in “perceived autonomy,” or self-determination, compared to peers learning in the classroom.

Student Thespians: When researchers asked 8-year-olds to mimic the words they were learning in another language by using their hands and bodies to act out the word’s meaning—by spreading their arms and pretending to fly while they learned the German word for airplane, for example—the students were 73 percent more likely to recall them , even two months later.

In ELA and social study classes, having kids partake in skits may feel like it’s inviting chaos, but the body will often remember what the mind forgets—and getting students to act out historical events or scenes from works of literature can help them remember the information, grasp the basic elements of drama, or provide them with a new opportunity to listen to the sounds and rhythms of written and spoken language.

Drawing It Out: Even indifferent or unpracticed artists benefit by drawing what they’ve learned, a 2018 study concluded, resulting in retention rates that were double the rates of when kids wrote or read.

When a student draws a concept, they “must elaborate on its meaning and semantic features,” the researchers explain, while engaging “in the actual hand movements needed for drawing”—a rich mixture of cognitive and physiological activities that encodes learning more deeply and is a “reliable, replicable means of boosting performance.”

The drawing doesn’t have to be expert-level: even stick figures or crude shapes accompanied by annotations will do, and data visualizations work similarly to hand-drawn pictures. You can assess learning by allowing kids to try one-pagers that demonstrate their understanding of a topic through art; incorporate more graphs and statistical modeling into math and science classes; have students draw models of solar systems or cells in science classes; or let students create travel journals to document any learning journey graphically.

ACTIVE BRAIN BREAKS

Research shows that when students take brief, active breaks throughout the day, it increases productivity, creativity, and social skills . “When we take a brain break, it refreshes our thinking and helps us discover another solution to a problem or see a situation through a different lens,” writes Lori Desautels , an assistant professor at the Butler University College of Education. “The brain break actually helps to incubate and process new information,” says Desautels.

So plan for frequent breaks (we’ve included a few ideas to get you started) and keep them active and social—a brisk walk around the perimeter of the classroom, a quick stretch, an energizing freeze dance.

Brain breaks for younger students: Try wiggle breaks where kids stand and wiggle each arm and leg in succession or opposite sides , where kids blink one eye while snapping fingers on the opposite side and then reverse the exercise. For energizing breath , have students pant like dogs with their mouths open and tongues out for 30 seconds, hands on the belly, then breathe briskly for another 30 seconds with mouths closed. Easier still: invite kids to jump in place like they’re on a trampoline; or keep it really simple with a quick crab walk around the room. 

Brain breaks for older students: Try a wave , starting at one end of the room with students standing and raising their arms; or have them get out of their chairs for a whole-body stretch or for a brief walk around the room. They can also pass a ball around for a quick game of catch, practice a few yoga poses like tree pose or warrior II, or very simply, ask them to hop on one foot , then switch to the other foot for a minute or two.

MISCONCEPTIONS ABOUT MOVEMENT WHILE LEARNING

Doodling, Fidgeting, and More: There’s often confusion about movement that is not directly related to learning. While drawing a plant cell or creating a pictorial representation of a scene from a novel will deepen retention and result in more durable learning , when students doodle during lessons—by drawing elaborate cartoons while an unrelated lesson is in progress, for example—the research, and the cognitive science, suggests that learning is compromised .

In a 2019 study during which students were asked to doodle—which the researchers defined as “drawing that is semantically unrelated to to-be-remembered information”—while they learned, they showed “poorer free recall for words encoded while free-form doodling compared to words that were drawn or written.”

Multitasking divides our attention , a finite cognitive resource, and makes us less proficient at both tasks. But there’s a wrinkle here, too: There is some evidence that activities that require very little attention, like fidgeting or listening to soft background music (but probably not loud or attention-gobbling music), don’t divide our focus to the same degree. Being tolerant of a certain amount of fidgeting or a pair of headphones is an important accommodation for students who might otherwise need to get out of their seats entirely, or might struggle with focused, demanding tasks like homework. In the end, the more distracting any task is to the lesson, the less likely learning is to stick.

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Movement in the classroom has been shown to boost students' daily minutes of physical activity and support academic learning through improved behavior and focus.

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Classroom Physical Activity Breaks

Take Action

Schools and teachers looking to integrate physical activity both in and out of the classroom should start with a few initial steps and considerations before implementing a new or enhancing an existing program.

• Engage and leverage your  school health team  to identify key opportunities for student physical activity as well as any significant barriers to successful implementation.
• Understand your  local school wellness policy  and how it supports or enhances opportunities for brain breaks and classroom energizers.
• Develop your elevator pitch to describe to your different audiences why physical activity is important and how it links to academic achievement as well as other positive outcomes.
• Get your principal’s approval! A supportive principal is essential to your efforts.
• Make this activity inclusive for all abilities:
• Empower students to suggest and choose which activities, games and movements they find enjoyable and accessible.
• Get to know your students and find out about their abilities, limitations, and interests. Encourage them to be a part of the learning and lesson planning process.
• Demonstrate modifications of simple and complex movement skills such as jumping jacks, squats, and push-ups. For example, show students a wall push-up, a kneeling push-up, and a full push-up. Give students the opportunity to choose which option is best.
• Adapt the game or activity rules. Some simple suggestions include reducing the number of players on a team, modifying the activity area, eliminating time limits, and lowering or enlarging targets or goals.
• Try creative or team-building games where success is only possible when the whole group works together.
• Integrate various types and sizes of equipment such as tactile balls, juggling scarves, numbered spot markers, and foam noodles.
• Vary body parts used, the speed of movement, and number of repetitions to adjust for mobility limitations or low fitness students.
• Mobility adaptations: Some activities may be done from a seated position allowing mobility challenged students to participate with peers or doing similar motions with hands/arms as others are doing with feet legs.
• Sensory adaptations: Students with deafness, speech, self-management or cognitive problems may be able to participate fully in a follow the leader manner. These are very short periods of activity and done in groups of fewer than thirty so students are able to keep up to peers.

Social Emotional Health Highlights

Activities such as these help students explore…

Self-Management: Classroom Physical Activity breaks provide the perfect opportunity for students and teachers to organize their thoughts to better manage stress and control impulses. Release the wiggles with a dance or two and give students are an opportunity to check-in with their emotions and get motivated to continue working towards their goals.

Responsible Decision Making: Taking a classroom activity break can be a great way to redirect attention and antsy behavior to a fun, interactive activity or game. Sometimes all children need is a short opportunity to analyze the current situation, reflect, and responsibly choose their next action. Physical Activity breaks in the classroom provide students an opportunity to practice these skills while increasing to energize the brain.

Participate with your students in the activity. Students will be more likely to join in and have fun if they see their school community moving with them.

Keep physical activity breaks short and manageable. Shoot for 1 – 5 minute breaks at least 2-3 times per day.

Ask teachers and school administrators to share and demonstrate their favorite activities, games, and movement ideas during staff meetings throughout the school year.

Create a classroom atmosphere that embraces movement! Consider playing age and culturally appropriate music.

Integrate physical activity into academic concepts when possible.

Encourage your physical education teacher to be a movement leader and advocate.

Empower students by asking them to share and lead their own physical activity break ideas.

Add in fun equipment items such as beanbags, spot markers, yoga mats, and balance boards. Consider applying for a Game On grant !

Add physical activity breaks right into your daily schedule. Try creating a classroom physical activity calendar of events that includes a variety of ideas throughout the month. Use a  classroom physical activity tracker to help your students reach 10 minutes daily!

Ask a parent volunteer create a playlist of music that complements planned movement breaks.

Ask parents to create movement break activity cards and props for teachers to use.

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46 Unique Phys Ed Games Your Students Will Love

Get your steps in!

There’s nothing kids need more to break up a day spent sitting still and listening than a fun PE class to let off some steam. In the old days, going to gym class probably included playing kickball or dodgeball after running a few laps. Since then, there have been countless reinventions of and variations on old classics as well as completely new games. Although there is no shortage of options, we love that the supplies required remain relatively minimal. You can transport to another galaxy using just a pool noodle or two or create a life-size game of Connect 4 using just Hula-Hoops. You’ll want to make sure to have some staples on hand like balls, beanbags, and parachutes. There are even PE games for kindergartners based on beloved children’s TV shows and party games. Regardless of your students’ athletic abilities, there is something for everyone on our list of elementary PE games!

1. Tic-Tac-Toe Relay

Elementary PE games that not only get students moving but also get them thinking are our favorites. Grab some Hula-Hoops and a few scarves or beanbags and get ready to watch the fun!

Learn more: Tic-Tac-Toe Relay at S&S Blog

2. Blob Tag

Pick two students to start as the Blob, then as they tag other kids, they will become part of the Blob. Be sure to demonstrate safe tagging, stressing the importance of soft touches.

Learn more: Blob Tag at Playworks

3. Cross the River

This fun game has multiple levels that students have to work through, including “get to the island,” “cross the river,” and “you lost a rock.”

Learn more: Cross the River at The PE Specialist

4. Head, Shoulders, Knees, and Cones

Line up cones, then have students pair up and stand on either side of a cone. Finally, call out head, shoulders, knees, or cones. If cones is called, students have to race to be the first to pick up their cone before their opponent.

Learn more: Head, Shoulders, Knees & Cones at S&S Blog

5. Spider Ball

Elementary PE games are often variations of dodgeball like this one. One or two players start with the ball and attempt to hit all of the runners as they run across the gym or field. If a player is hit, they can then join in and become a spider themselves.

Learn more: Spider Ball Game at Kid Activities

6. Crab Soccer

We love elementary PE games that require students to act like animals (and we think they will too). Similar to regular soccer, but students will need to play on all fours while maintaining a crab-like position.

Learn more: Crab Soccer at Playworks

7. Halloween Tag

This is the perfect PE game to play in October. It’s similar to tag, but there are witches, wizards, and blobs with no bones!

Learn more: Halloween Tag at The Physical Educator

8. Crazy Caterpillars

We love that this game is not only fun but also works on students’ hand-eye coordination. Students will have fun pushing their balls around the gym with pool noodles while building their caterpillars.

9. Monster Ball

You’ll need a large exercise ball or something similar to act as the monster ball in the middle. Make a square around the monster ball, divide the class into teams on either side of the square, then task the teams with throwing small balls at the monster ball to move it into the other team’s area.

Learn more: Monster Ball at The PE Specialist

10. Striker Ball

Striker ball is an enjoyable game that will keep your students entertained while working on reaction time and strategic planning. We love that there is limited setup required before playing.

Learn more: Striker Ball at S&S Blog

11. Parachute Tug-of-War

What list of elementary PE games would be complete without some parachute fun? So simple yet so fun, all you will need is a large parachute and enough students to create two teams. Have students stand on opposite sides of the parachute, then let them compete to see which side comes out on top.

Learn more: Parachute Tug-of-War at Mom Junction

12. Fleas Off the Parachute

Another fun parachute game where one team needs to try to keep the balls (fleas) on the parachute and the other tries to get them off.

Learn more: Fleas Off the Parachute at Mom Junction

13. Crazy Ball

The setup for this fun game is similar to kickball, with three bases and a home base. Crazy ball really is so crazy as it combines elements of football, Frisbee, and kickball!

Learn more: Crazy Ball at Health Beet

14. Bridge Tag

This game starts as simple tag but evolves into something more fun once the tagging begins. Once tagged, kids must form a bridge with their body and they can’t be freed until someone crawls through.

Learn more: Bridge Tag at Great Camp Games

15. Star Wars Tag

Elementary PE games that allow you to be your favorite movie character are just way too much fun! You will need two different-colored pool noodles to stand in for lightsabers. The tagger will have one color pool noodle that they use to tag students while the healer will have the other color that they will use to free their friends.

Learn more: Star Wars Tag at Great Camp Games

16. Rob the Nest

Create an obstacle course that leads to a nest of eggs (balls) and then divide the students into teams. They will have to race relay-style through the obstacles to retrieve eggs and bring them back to their team.

17. Four Corners

We love this classic game since it engages students physically while also working on color recognition for younger students. Have your students stand on a corner, then close their eyes and call out a color. Students standing on that color earn a point.

Learn more: Four Corners at The Many Little Joys

18. Movement Dice

This is a perfect warm-up that requires only a die and a sheet with corresponding exercises.

Learn more: Roll the Dice Movement Break at Teaching Littles

19. Rock, Paper, Scissors Tag

A fun spin on tag, children will tag one another and then play a quick game of Rock, Paper, Scissors to determine who has to sit and who gets to continue playing.

Learn more: Rock, Paper, Scissors Tag at Grade Onederful

20. Cornhole Cardio

This one is so fun but can be a little bit confusing, so be sure to leave plenty of time for instruction. Kids will be divided into teams before proceeding through a fun house that includes cornhole, running laps, and stacking cups.

Learn more: Cardio Cornhole at S&S Blog

21. Connect 4 Relay

This relay takes the game Connect 4 to a whole new level. Players must connect four dots either horizontally, vertically, or diagonally.

22. Zookeepers

Students will love imitating their favorite animals while playing this fun variation of Four Corners where the taggers are the zookeepers.

23. Racket Whack-It

Students stand with rackets in hand while balls are thrown at them—they must either dodge the balls or swat them away.

Learn more: Racket Whack-It via PEgames.org

24. Crazy Moves

Set mats out around the gym, then yell out a number. Students must race to the mat before it is already filled with the correct number of bodies.

Learn more: Crazy Moves at PEgames.org

25. Wheelbarrow Race

Sometimes the best elementary PE games are the simplest. An oldie but a goodie, wheelbarrow races require no equipment and are guaranteed to be a hit with your students.

Learn more: Wheelbarrow Race at wikiHow

26. Live-Action Pac-Man

Fans of retro video games like Pac-Man will get a kick out of this live-action version where students get to act out the characters.

27. Spaceship Tag

Give each of your students a Hula-Hoop (spaceship), then have them run around trying not to bump into anyone else’s spaceship or get tagged by the teacher (alien). Once your students get really good at it, you can add different levels of complexity.

28. Rock, Paper, Scissors Beanbag Balance

We love this spin on Rock, Paper, Scissors because it works on balance and coordination. Students walk around the gym until they find an opponent, then the winner collects a beanbag, which they must balance on their head!

Learn more: Rock, Paper, Scissors Beanbag Balance at PE Universe

29. Throwing, Catching, and Rolling

This is a fun activity but it will require a lot of preparation, including asking the school maintenance staff to collect industrial-sized paper towel rolls. We love this activity because it reminds us of the old-school arcade game Skee-Ball!

Learn more: Winter Activity at S&S Blog

30. Jenga Fitness

Although Jenga is fun enough on its own, combining it with fun physical challenges is sure to be a winner with young students.

Learn more: Jenga Fitness at S&S Blog

31. Volcanoes and Ice Cream Cones

Divide the class into two teams, then assign one team as volcanoes and the other as ice cream cones. Next, spread cones around the gym, half upside down and half right side up. Finally, have the teams race to flip as many cones as possible to either volcanoes or ice cream cones.

Learn more: Warm-Up Games at Prime Coaching Sport

This fun variation on dodgeball will have your students getting exercise while having a ton of fun! Begin with three balls on a basketball court. If you are hit by a ball, you are out. If you take a step while holding a ball, you are out. There are other rules surrounding getting out and also how to get back in, which can be found in this video.

33. Musical Hula-Hoops

PE games for kindergartners that are similar to party games are some of our favorites! Think musical chairs but with Hula-Hoops! Lay enough Hula-Hoops around the edge of the gym minus five students since they will be in the muscle pot. Once the music starts, students walk around the gym. When the music stops, whoever doesn’t find a Hula-Hoop becomes the new muscle pot!

34. 10-Second Tag

This game is perfect to play at the beginning of the year since it helps with learning names and allows the teacher to get to know the first student in line.

35. The Border

This game is so fun and requires no equipment whatsoever. Divide the gym into two sides. One side can move freely while the other side must avoid letting their feet touch the floor by rolling around, crawling, etc.

36. Freedom Catch

This is a simple throwing, catching, and tag game that will certainly be a hit with your PE class. Captors attempt to tag players so they can send them to jail. You can be freed if someone on your team runs to a freedom cone while throwing a ball to the jailed person. If the ball is caught by the jailed person, they can rejoin the game.

37. Oscar’s Trashcan

As far as PE games for kindergartners goes, this one is a guaranteed winner since it is based on the show Sesame Street . You’ll need two large areas that can be sectioned off to use as trash cans and also a lot of medium-size balls. There are two teams who must compete to fill their opponent’s trash can while emptying their own. Once over, the trash will be counted and the team with the least amount of trash in their trash can wins!

38. 4-Way Frisbee

Divide your class into four separate teams, who will compete for points by catching a Frisbee inside one of the designated goal areas. Defenders are also able to go into the goal areas. There are a number of other rules that can be applied so you can modify the game in a way that’s best for your class.

39. Badminton King’s/Queen’s Court

This one is simple but fun since it is played rapid-fire with kids waiting their turn to take on the King or Queen of the court. Two players start and as soon as a point is earned, the loser swaps places with another player. The goal is to be the player that stays on the court the longest, consistently knocking out new opponents.

40. Jumping and Landing Stations

Kids love stations and they definitely love jumping, so why not combine those things into one super-fun gym class? They’ll have a blast challenging themselves with all the different obstacles presented in this video.

41. Ninja Warrior Obstacle Course

Regardless of whether you’ve ever seen an episode of American Ninja Warrior , you are probably familiar with the concept and so are your students. Plus, you’ll probably have just as much fun as your students setting up the obstacles and testing them out!

42. Balloon Tennis

Since kids love playing keepy-uppy with a balloon, they will love taking it a step further with balloon tag!

43. Indoor Putting Green

If your school can afford to invest in these unique putting green sets, you can introduce the game of golf to kids as young as kindergarten. Who knows, you might just have a future Masters winner in your class!

44. Scooter Activities

Let’s be honest, we all have fond memories of using scooters in gym class. Regardless of whether you do a scooter sleigh or scooter hockey, we think there is something for everyone in this fun video.

45. Pick It Up

This is the perfect PE game to play if you are stuck in a small space with a good-size group. Teams win by making all of their beanbag shots and then collecting all of their dots and stacking them into a nice neat pile.

46. Dodgeball Variations

Since not all kids love having balls thrown at them, why not try a dodgeball alternative that uses gym equipment as targets rather than fellow students? For example, have each student stand in front of a Hula-Hoop with a bowling ball inside of it. Students need to protect their hoop while attempting to knock over their opponents’ pins.

What are your favorite elementary PE games to play with your class? Come and share in our We Are Teachers HELPLINE group  on Facebook.

Plus, check out  our favorite recess games for the classroom ..

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Physical Activity: Classroom-based Physically Active Lesson Interventions

About this resource:.

Source: The Guide to Community Preventive Services

The last reviewed date indicates when the evidence for this resource last underwent a comprehensive review.

Workgroups: Physical Activity Workgroup , Adolescent Health Workgroup

Classroom-based physically active lessons are those in which teachers direct bouts of physical activity during an academic lesson. The Community Preventive Services Task Force conducted a systematic review of the evidence and recommends classroom-based physically active lesson interventions based on findings that this intervention lead to increased physical activity and to improved academic outcomes for students. The recommended lesson interventions:

• Involve moderate-to-vigorous physical activity
• Range from 10 to 30 minutes in length
• Include training for teachers, like lesson plans and resources to engage students in physical activity

Objectives related to this resource (2)

Suggested citation.

Guide to Community Preventive Services. (2021). Physical Activity: Classroom-based Physically Active Lesson Interventions. Retrieved from https://www.thecommunityguide.org/findings/physical-activity-classroom-based-physically-active-lesson-interventions .

The Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion (ODPHP) cannot attest to the accuracy of a non-federal website.

Linking to a non-federal website does not constitute an endorsement by ODPHP or any of its employees of the sponsors or the information and products presented on the website.

You will be subject to the destination website's privacy policy when you follow the link.

Healthy kids and the promotion of physical activity for students is a hot topic!  This page offers a compilation of resources that may assist teachers in adopting classroom physical activity (listed alphabetically). At the bottom of the page are links to programming to increase physical activity across the school day. (Please also see our Materials page for implementation ideas and activities.)

Action for Healthy Kids

This site is dedicated to promoting health in children, primarily through school-based actions.

• http://www.actionforhealthykids.org

Active Classrooms

This page, part of Active Schools, offers a list of resources to aid teachers in engaging students in movement within the classroom.

• https://www.activeschoolsus.org/campaigns/active-classrooms/

Active for Life

This site, while geared at parents, offers free activity ideas for children based on age (1-12 yrs) and skill sets. It is also a resource for physical activity in children.

• Home:  http://activeforlife.com
• Direct link to activity search:  http://activeforlife.com/activities

Active Schools Acceleration Project

This links accesses a launch kit for CHALK/Just Move™ curriculum materials to engage students in physical activity at school.

• Launch Kit Home:  http://www.activeschoolsasap.org/node/213
• Direct link to Just Move™ Start-up Guide with implementation tips:  http://www.activeschoolsasap.org/files/u8/just-move-guide_final_08.20.13.pdf
• Direct link to Just Move™ Activity Cards:  http://www.activeschoolsasap.org/files/u8/just_move_cards_final_08.13.13.pdf

Alliance for a Healthier Generation (Physical Activity in Schools)

This site promotes physical activity and shares guidance and resources for increasing physical activity opportunities at school. There is also an option to sign your school up for the Healthy Schools Program.

• https://www.healthiergeneration.org/take_action/schools/physical_activity

BAM! Body and Mind

This site offers information about various types of physical activity that students may wish to learn more about – what gear is needed, how to be safe, how to play, and fun facts for each activity. While these activities are not conducive to classroom physical activity, the cards may assist in the creation of an active culture and promote physical activity in students outside of school.

• http://www.cdc.gov/bam/activity/index.html

Classroom Physical Activity

As a sub-set of the Healthy Schools site, this Centers for Disease Control and Prevention page is dedicated to classroom physical activity. It offers an overview, data and policy information, and several documents on strategies for integrating physical activity into the classroom. As an additional resource, a PPT presentation can be downloaded and shared with stakeholders.

• Main page: https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/physicalactivity/classroom-pa.htm
• Direct link to PDF “Strategies for Classroom Physical Activity in Schools” :  https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/physicalactivity/pdf/ClassroomPAStrategies_508.pdf
• Direct link to PPT download  “Integrate Classroom Physical Activity: Getting Students Active During School” :  https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/physicalactivity/pdf/Integrate_Classroom_PA_PPT_slides_508.PPTX

Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program – ONLINE COURSE!

Developed by the CDC as part of their “Training Tools for Healthy Schools: Promoting Health and Academic Success”, this free online course offers individuals a chance to “understand the importance and benefits of youth physical activity, recognize the components of a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program, and learn the process for developing, implementing, and evaluating a Comprehensive School Physical Activity Program”.

• https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/professional_development/e-learning/CSPAP/index.html

Energizing Brain Breaks

This site primarily seeks to sell the Energizing Brain Breaks books, but also offers information about classroom physical activity breaks and relevant links.

• http://energizingbrainbreaks.com

5 Strategies for Recess Planning

This page, from the June 2017 National Association of Elementary School Principals, offers step-by-step suggestions for cultivating effective recess time for students.

• https://www.naesp.org/resource/5-strategies-for-recess-planning

The Importance of Active Classrooms

This single page, compiled by Support Real Teachers, has links to a host of helpful resources for engaging students in movement at school.

• http://www.supportrealteachers.org/brain-breaks-and-class-based-activities.html

Integrating Physical Activity into the Classroom: Practical Strategies for All School Health Leaders  *NEW*

Recorded WEBINAR by Springboard to Active Schools that shares ” two new resources to help teachers and caregivers easily integrate physical activity with a safety, inclusion, and equity lens in different learning settings” while modeling movement engagement.

• https://www.ashaweb.org/integrating-physical-activity-into-the-classroom-practical-strategies-for-all-school-health-leaders

Involve Families in Physical Activity in Schools

This PDF, from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, addresses the importance of parental involvement and offer tips to promote parental support of classroom physical activity practices.

• https://www.cdc.gov/healthyschools/physicalactivity/pdf/Family_Engagement_Data_Brief_CDC_Logo_FINAL_191106.pdf

Marcia Lee Unnever, founder of Kids Focus, has compiled a list of videos relevant to brain-based learning and physical activity. Kids Focus offers brain-based movements for the early childhood and elementary classroom as well as professional training on cognition and behavioral development in childhood.

• https://kidsfocususa.com/videos

By Nemours Center, the KidsHealth website offers information about health in children. Several pages are dedicated to classroom physical activity, and include suggestions and strategies for implementation, videos, discussion questions and student worksheets to facilitate increased knowledge on fitness benefits, and more.

• KidsHealth in the Classroom home:  http://classroom.kidshealth.org
• Easy Elementary Exercises:  http://kidshealth.org/en/kids/bfs-elementary-execises.html?ref=classroom
• Grades preK-2 Fitness:  http://kidshealth.org/classroom/prekto2/personal/fitness/fitness.pdf
• Grades 3-5 Fitness:  http://kidshealth.org/classroom/3to5/personal/fitness/fitness.pdf
• Boost Grades, Improve Behavior:  http://kidshealth.org/en/parents/elementary-exercises.html
• NBA FIT:  http://kidshealth.org/classroom/prekto2/personal/fitness/nba_fit_classroom_color.pdf

The Kinesthetic Classroom: Teaching and Learning through Movement

This TEDx talk by the author of the book addresses the principles of the brain in relation to movement and learning.

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=41gtxgDfY4s

Learning on the Move

This website, created by physical educator Liz Giles-Brown, shares a similar mission with Classrooms in Motion™ – offering information and resources for active learning – broken down into brain basics, learning to move, and moving to learn categories.

• http://www.learningonthemove.org

Made to Play

“Our generation is the least active. Ever. And that’s not ok. We’re not looking for a pro. Just a chance. If you think you have what it takes to get us moving, Nike has a way for you to join in.”

• https://www.nike.com/made-to-play
• Direct link to Designed to Move report:  https://www.nike.com/pdf/made-to-play-designed-to-move-2020-report.pdf

Math & Movement

“Math & Movement uses multi-sensory learning approaches to teach students valuable skills to succeed in their school’s math and reading curricula. …students learn through different styles which is why our exercises include teaching with visual, auditory, and kinesthetic elements aligned with most state standards.”

• https://mathandmovement.com

Move Your Body, Grow Your Brain

The authors of this article, who developed a Brain-Based Teaching degree, share strategies for incorporating movement and activity into the classroom as brain-based learning.

• https://www.edutopia.org/blog/move-body-grow-brain-donna-wilson

Moving Minds Toolkit

This free PDF download, from Moving Minds, is a great resource. Drafted to advocate for active learning, it offers easy-to-read information and graphics on relevant research and implementation. (Must enter name and email to access.)

• https://www.moving-minds.com/toolkit

Physical Activity for Children

This site offers information about physical activity for youth and provides suggestions for parents and communities to support physical activity.

• http://www.clemson.edu/extension/hgic/food/nutrition/nutrition/dietary_guide/hgic4032.html

RunJumpThrow

“USA Track & Field and Hershey teamed up to create RunJumpThrow (RJT), a hands-on learning program that gets kids excited about physical activity by introducing them to the basic running, jumping and throwing skills through track and field.”

• https://www.usatf.org/runjumpthrow

Safe Routes to School

To promote active transportation to school, this national partnership published a toolkit called “The Wheels on the Bike Go Round & Round: How to Get a Bike Train Rolling at Your School.” The main site also shares background and information to support walking and biking to school.

• https://www.saferoutespartnership.org/resources/toolkit/bike-train-toolkit

Springboard to Active Schools

“Since 2016, Springboard to Active Schools supports CDC-funded state departments of health and/or education to promote active school environments in school districts and schools across the country.”

• https://schoolspringboard.org

Stand Up Kids

In partnership with Let’s Move! Active Schools, this site shares interesting data on sitting vs. standing, as well as interactive data on outcomes associated with sedentary behavior, such as sitting. Also included within the site is a “Tools” page that offers movement break videos to decrease sitting time in the classroom.

• http://standupkids.org

Strategies for Recess in Schools

“Recess helps students to achieve the recommended 60 minutes of physical activity that can improve strength and endurance; enhance academic achievement; and increase self-esteem for children and adolescents. …new guidance documents that provide schools with 19 evidence-based strategies for recess, as well as a planning guide and template to help develop a written recess plan that integrates these strategies.”

• http://portal.shapeamerica.org/standards/guidelines/Strategies_for_Recess_in_Schools.aspx

TeachHub.com

These two pages from the TeachHub site offer tips and suggestions for incorporating movement into the classroom.  *Moss article moved to new site

• Top 12 Classroom Fitness Activities   (by Annie Condron)
• How to Use Fitness Breaks to Keep Students Alert in the Classroom   (by Dick Moss)

Think Outside the Sandbox: Creative Ways to Keep Kids Active

This site, which was actually put together by a playground equipment company, offers quick suggestions on how to increase physical activity among children along with a list of resources links to other helpful sites.

• http://www.playgroundequipment.com/think-outside-the-sandbox-creative-ways-to-keep-kids-active

Using Brain Breaks to Restore Students’ Focus

Filed on Edutopia’s website under ‘brain-based learning’, this article provides the reader an opportunity to “learn about the science and classroom applicability of these quick learning activities.”

• https://www.edutopia.org/article/brain-breaks-restore-student-focus-judy-willis

Programming to Increase Activity

100 Mile Club

The 100 Mile Club a free program that encourages students to run incremental distances to reach the 100 mile goal across the academic school year. Incentives, including t-shirts, certificates, and pencils, are available for a fee.

• https://100mileclub.com

BOKS (Build Our Kids’ Success) is a free program, sponsored by Reebok, that is lead by volunteer parents before school. Check out all of the program information and how to start a program at your school!

• https://www.bokskids.org
• See also free downloads:  https://www.bokskids.org/downloads

The Daily Mile

The Daily Mile, started in the UK, engages students in 15 minutes of running each day while at school. Given the success and simplicity of this free program, schools around the world are getting their students active using The Daily Mile.

• Home:  https://www.thedailymile.org
• United States site:  https://www.thedailymile.us

SEL Journeys (by CATCH)

SEL Journeys is “a digital experience that allows students to explore the world through movement and the arts while focusing on Social and Emotional Learning (SEL) themes like diversity, empathy and kindness.” Some free resources and demonstrations are available; pricing available on request.

• https://edumotion.com

Marathon Kids

Marathon Kids, now partnered with Nike, invites schools to start running clubs to get students active.

• https://marathonkids.org

My School in Motion

The motto of the My School in Motion program, “Moving together every morning for  healthier minds, bodies, and attitudes!”, is achieved through “a school-wide daily fitness, nutrition, health and wellness program performed at the beginning of every school day.” Contact My School in Motion, Inc. today to get your school in motion!

• https://www.myschoolinmotion.org

Physical Activity: Interventions to Increase Active Travel to School

“The Community Preventive Services Task Force (CPSTF) recommends interventions to increase active travel to school based on evidence they increase walking among students and reduce risks for traffic-related injury.”

• https://www.thecommunityguide.org/findings/physical-activity-interventions-increase-active-travel-school

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How Physical Activity Benefits Classroom Learning

Table of Contents

• Introduction
• The Science behind Physical Activity and Learning
• Brain Structure 🧠
• Neurotransmitters and Hormones ✨
• Increased Oxygen Flow 💨
• Reduced Stress and Anxiety 😔
• Physical Activity Programs in Schools
• Classroom Exercises 👩‍🏫
• Brain Breaks 🧠
• Physical Education Classes 🏃‍♀️
• Active Transportation 🚶
• Improved Academic Performance
• Test Scores and Grades 📝
• Attention and Focus 🙇
• Memory and Retention 💭
• Creativity and Problem-Solving Skills ➿
• Health Benefits of Physical Activity
• Reduced Risk of Chronic Diseases ❤️
• Improved Sleep 😴
• Better Mental Health 😊

1. Introduction 

As students spend more and more time sitting in classrooms, teachers and schools are searching for ways to make learning more engaging and effective. One approach gaining traction is integrating physical activity into the curriculum. While the benefits of physical activity on overall health are well-known, the impact on academic performance is often overlooked. In this article, we'll explore the science behind how physical activity can benefit classroom learning and discuss the various ways schools can incorporate physical activity into the school day. Whether you're a teacher, parent, or student, read on to discover how physical activity can improve academic performance and enhance overall well-being.

2. The Science behind Physical Activity and Learning

Physical activity triggers several changes in the brain that can enhance learning and cognitive performance . Here are a few ways physical activity can benefit classroom learning:

• Brain Structure

• Neurotransmitters and Hormones

Physical activity also releases neurotransmitters and hormones that are crucial for brain function. For example, exercise can increase the production of dopamine, which is associated with motivation and reward. Additionally, exercise can stimulate the production of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which is critical for the growth and survival of brain cells.

• Increased Oxygen Flow

Physical activity can increase blood flow and oxygen supply to the brain, which is essential for optimal cognitive function. This increased oxygen flow can help students feel more alert and focused during class.

• Reduced Stress and Anxiety

Physical activity has been shown to reduce stress and anxiety levels . This is significant because high levels of stress and anxiety can impair cognitive function and hinder academic performance.

3. Physical Activity Programs in Schools

To integrate physical activity into the classroom, schools can implement various programs and initiatives. Here are a few examples:

• Classroom Exercises

Teachers can incorporate brief exercise breaks into their lessons to help students stay active and focused. These exercises can include simple stretches or movements that don't require much space.

• Brain Breaks

Brain breaks are short breaks that give students the opportunity to move around and engage in physical activity. These breaks can range from a few minutes to a full recess period.

• Physical Education Classes

Physical education classes provide students with structured exercise opportunities that can benefit their physical and mental health.

• Active Transportation

Walking or biking to school is an excellent way for students to get regular physical activity. Additionally, this mode of transportation can reduce traffic congestion and air pollution around schools. Make sure they have chaperones if needed or a teacher makes sure the kids are leaving the school safely.

4. Improved Academic Performance

Physical activity has been shown to improve academic performance in several ways:

• Test Scores and Grades

Studies have found a positive correlation between physical activity and academic performance. Specifically, students who participate in physical activity tend to score higher on tests and receive better grades.

• Attention and Focus

Physical activity can improve attention and focus in the classroom . For example, students who participated in brief exercise breaks during class were more attentive and less distracted than their peers who did not.

• Memory and Retention

Physical activity can also enhance memory and retention . Research has shown that exercise can improve the hippocampus's size

• Creativity and Problem-Solving Skills

Physical activity can also enhance creativity and problem-solving skills. Exercise has been shown to increase the production of new brain cells in the hippocampus, a region of the brain associated with these cognitive processes.

5. Health Benefits of Physical Activity

Beyond its impact on academic performance, physical activity has numerous health benefits that can improve students' overall well-being:

• Reduced Risk of Chronic Diseases

Regular physical activity can reduce the risk of chronic diseases such as obesity, diabetes, and heart disease . Encouraging students to be physically active from a young age can establish healthy habits that last a lifetime.

• Improved Sleep

Physical activity can also improve sleep quality and duration, which is essential for students' overall health and well-being. Studies have found that regular exercise can help students fall asleep faster and stay asleep longer.

• Better Mental Health

Physical activity has been shown to reduce symptoms of anxiety and depression, which can have a significant impact on students' mental health. Incorporating physical activity into the school day can provide students with a valuable outlet for stress and anxiety.

Incorporating physical activity into the classroom can benefit students' academic performance, health, and well-being. From brief exercise breaks to physical education classes, there are numerous ways schools can promote physical activity and create a more engaging and effective learning environment. But how can we get this to be fun? Out of all the subjects, physical education should be the most fun to get our little ones pumped to go into other subjects. Incorporating education into more play based learning can have an overall net positive impact on children. How have you found fun, entertaining ways to get your kids moving, playing & learning? 

• What types of physical activity are best for classroom learning?

*Any type of physical activity that gets students moving and active can benefit classroom learning. This can include brief exercise breaks, brain breaks, physical education classes, and active transportation.

• How often should students engage in physical activity during the school day?

*It is recommended that students engage in at least 60 minutes of physical activity per day, which can be spread out throughout the school day.

• What are some ways schools can promote physical activity outside of the classroom?

*Schools can promote physical activity by offering after-school sports programs, creating safe and accessible walking and biking paths, and hosting physical activity events such as field days or fun runs.

• Can physical activity benefit students with learning disabilities?

* Yes, physical activity can benefit all students, including those with learning disabilities. Research has shown that physical activity can improve cognitive function and academic performance in children with ADHD and other learning disabilities.

• How can parents encourage physical activity outside of school?

*Parents can encourage physical activity by scheduling regular family activities that involve movement, such as hikes or bike rides, and limiting screen time to encourage more active play.

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Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30.

Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School.

• Hardcopy Version at National Academies Press

4 Physical Activity, Fitness, and Physical Education: Effects on Academic Performance

Key messages.

• Evidence suggests that increasing physical activity and physical fitness may improve academic performance and that time in the school day dedicated to recess, physical education class, and physical activity in the classroom may also facilitate academic performance.
• Available evidence suggests that mathematics and reading are the academic topics that are most influenced by physical activity. These topics depend on efficient and effective executive function, which has been linked to physical activity and physical fitness.
• Executive function and brain health underlie academic performance. Basic cognitive functions related to attention and memory facilitate learning, and these functions are enhanced by physical activity and higher aerobic fitness.
• Single sessions of and long-term participation in physical activity improve cognitive performance and brain health. Children who participate in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity benefit the most.
• Given the importance of time on task to learning, students should be provided with frequent physical activity breaks that are developmentally appropriate.
• Although presently understudied, physically active lessons offered in the classroom may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting.

Although academic performance stems from a complex interaction between intellect and contextual variables, health is a vital moderating factor in a child's ability to learn. The idea that healthy children learn better is empirically supported and well accepted ( Basch, 2010 ), and multiple studies have confirmed that health benefits are associated with physical activity, including cardiovascular and muscular fitness, bone health, psychosocial outcomes, and cognitive and brain health ( Strong et al., 2005 ; see Chapter 3 ). The relationship of physical activity and physical fitness to cognitive and brain health and to academic performance is the subject of this chapter.

Given that the brain is responsible for both mental processes and physical actions of the human body, brain health is important across the life span. In adults, brain health, representing absence of disease and optimal structure and function, is measured in terms of quality of life and effective functioning in activities of daily living. In children, brain health can be measured in terms of successful development of attention, on-task behavior, memory, and academic performance in an educational setting. This chapter reviews the findings of recent research regarding the contribution of engagement in physical activity and the attainment of a health-enhancing level of physical fitness to cognitive and brain health in children. Correlational research examining the relationship among academic performance, physical fitness, and physical activity also is described. Because research in older adults has served as a model for understanding the effects of physical activity and fitness on the developing brain during childhood, the adult research is briefly discussed. The short- and long-term cognitive benefits of both a single session of and regular participation in physical activity are summarized.

Before outlining the health benefits of physical activity and fitness, it is important to note that many factors influence academic performance. Among these are socioeconomic status ( Sirin, 2005 ), parental involvement ( Fan and Chen, 2001 ), and a host of other demographic factors. A valuable predictor of student academic performance is a parent having clear expectations for the child's academic success. Attendance is another factor confirmed as having a significant impact on academic performance ( Stanca, 2006 ; Baxter et al., 2011 ). Because children must be present to learn the desired content, attendance should be measured in considering factors related to academic performance.

• PHYSICAL FITNESS AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY: RELATION TO ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

State-mandated academic achievement testing has had the unintended consequence of reducing opportunities for children to be physically active during the school day and beyond. In addition to a general shifting of time in school away from physical education to allow for more time on academic subjects, some children are withheld from physical education classes or recess to participate in remedial or enriched learning experiences designed to increase academic performance ( Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005 ; see Chapter 5 ). Yet little evidence supports the notion that more time allocated to subject matter will translate into better test scores. Indeed, 11 of 14 correlational studies of physical activity during the school day demonstrate a positive relationship to academic performance ( Rasberry et al., 2011 ). Overall, a rapidly growing body of work suggests that time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to a healthier mind ( Hillman et al., 2008 ).

Children respond faster and with greater accuracy to a variety of cognitive tasks after participating in a session of physical activity ( Tomporowski, 2003 ; Budde et al., 2008 ; Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pesce et al., 2009 ; Ellemberg and St-Louis-Deschênes, 2010 ). A single bout of moderate-intensity physical activity has been found to increase neural and behavioral concomitants associated with the allocation of attention to a specific cognitive task ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2012 ). And when children who participated in 30 minutes of aerobic physical activity were compared with children who watched television for the same amount of time, the former children cognitively outperformed the latter ( Ellemberg and St-Louis-Desêhenes, 2010 ). Visual task switching data among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences between cognitive performance after treadmill walking and sitting ( Tomporowski et al., 2008b ).

When physical activity is used as a break from academic learning time, postengagement effects include better attention ( Grieco et al., 2009 ; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011 ), increased on-task behaviors ( Mahar et al., 2006 ), and improved academic performance ( Donnelly and Lambourne, 2011 ). Comparisons between 1st-grade students housed in a classroom with stand-sit desks where the child could stand at his/her discretion and in classrooms containing traditional furniture showed that the former children were highly likely to stand, thus expending significantly more energy than those who were seated ( Benden et al., 2011 ). More important, teachers can offer physical activity breaks as part of a supplemental curriculum or simply as a way to reset student attention during a lesson ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ; see Chapter 6 ) and when provided with minimal training can efficaciously produce vigorous or moderate energy expenditure in students ( Stewart et al., 2004 ). Further, after-school physical activity programs have demonstrated the ability to improve cardiovascular endurance, and this increase in aerobic fitness has been shown to mediate improvements in academic performance ( Fredericks et al., 2006 ), as well as the allocation of neural resources underlying performance on a working memory task ( Kamijo et al., 2011 ).

Over the past three decades, several reviews and meta-analyses have described the relationship among physical fitness, physical activity, and cognition (broadly defined as all mental processes). The majority of these reviews have focused on the relationship between academic performance and physical fitness—a physiological trait commonly defined in terms of cardiorespiratory capacity (e.g., maximal oxygen consumption; see Chapter 3 ). More recently, reviews have attempted to describe the effects of an acute or single bout of physical activity, as a behavior, on academic performance. These reviews have focused on brain health in older adults ( Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ), as well as the effects of acute physical activity on cognition in adults ( Tomporowski, 2003 ). Some have considered age as part of the analysis ( Etnier et al., 1997 , 2006 ). Reviews focusing on research conducted in children ( Sibley and Etnier, 2003 ) have examined the relationship among physical activity, participation in sports, and academic performance ( Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 , 2010 ; Singh et al., 2012 ); physical activity and mental and cognitive health ( Biddle and Asare, 2011 ); and physical activity, nutrition, and academic performance ( Burkhalter and Hillman, 2011 ). The findings of most of these reviews align with the conclusions presented in a meta-analytic review conducted by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) . The studies reviewed by Fedewa and Ahn include experimental/quasi-experimental as well as cross-sectional and correlational designs, with the experimental designs yielding the highest effect sizes. The strongest relationships were found between aerobic fitness and achievement in mathematics, followed by IQ and reading performance. The range of cognitive performance measures, participant characteristics, and types of research design all mediated the relationship among physical activity, fitness, and academic performance. With regard to physical activity interventions, which were carried out both within and beyond the school day, those involving small groups of peers (around 10 youth of a similar age) were associated with the greatest gains in academic performance.

The number of peer-reviewed publications on this topic is growing exponentially. Further evidence of the growth of this line of inquiry is its increased global presence. Positive relationships among physical activity, physical fitness, and academic performance have been found among students from the Netherlands ( Singh et al., 2012 ) and Taiwan ( Chih and Chen, 2011 ). Broadly speaking, however, many of these studies show small to moderate effects and suffer from poor research designs ( Biddle and Asare, 2011 ; Singh et al., 2012 ).

Basch (2010) conducted a comprehensive review of how children's health and health disparities influence academic performance and learning. The author's report draws on empirical evidence suggesting that education reform will be ineffective unless children's health is made a priority. Basch concludes that schools may be the only place where health inequities can be addressed and that, if children's basic health needs are not met, they will struggle to learn regardless of the effectiveness of the instructional materials used. More recently, Efrat (2011) conducted a review of physical activity, fitness, and academic performance to examine the achievement gap. He discovered that only seven studies had included socioeconomic status as a variable, despite its known relationship to education ( Sirin, 2005 ).

Physical Fitness as a Learning Outcome of Physical Education and Its Relation to Academic Performance

Achieving and maintaining a healthy level of aerobic fitness, as defined using criterion-referenced standards from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES; Welk et al., 2011 ), is a desired learning outcome of physical education programming. Regular participation in physical activity also is a national learning standard for physical education, a standard intended to facilitate the establishment of habitual and meaningful engagement in physical activity ( NASPE, 2004 ). Yet although physical fitness and participation in physical activity are established as learning outcomes in all 50 states, there is little evidence to suggest that children actually achieve and maintain these standards (see Chapter 2 ).

Statewide and national datasets containing data on youth physical fitness and academic performance have increased access to student-level data on this subject ( Grissom, 2005 ; Cottrell et al., 2007 ; Carlson et al., 2008 ; Chomitz et al., 2008 ; Wittberg et al., 2010 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Early research in South Australia focused on quantifying the benefits of physical activity and physical education during the school day; the benefits noted included increased physical fitness, decreased body fat, and reduced risk for cardiovascular disease ( Dwyer et al., 1979 , 1983 ). Even today, Dwyer and colleagues are among the few scholars who regularly include in their research measures of physical activity intensity in the school environment, which is believed to be a key reason why they are able to report differentiated effects of different intensities. A longitudinal study in Trois-Rivières, Québec, Canada, tracked how the academic performance of children from grades 1 through 6 was related to student health, motor skills, and time spent in physical education. The researchers concluded that additional time dedicated to physical education did not inhibit academic performance ( Shephard et al., 1984 ; Shephard, 1986 ; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 ).

Longitudinal follow-up investigating the long-term benefits of enhanced physical education experiences is encouraging but largely inconclusive. In a study examining the effects of daily physical education during elementary school on physical activity during adulthood, 720 men and women completed the Québec Health Survey ( Trudeau et al., 1999 ). Findings suggest that physical education was associated with physical activity in later life for females but not males ( Trudeau et al., 1999 ); most of the associations were significant but weak ( Trudeau et al., 2004 ). Adult body mass index (BMI) at age 34 was related to childhood BMI at ages 10-12 in females but not males ( Trudeau et al., 2001 ). Longitudinal studies such as those conducted in Sweden and Finland also suggest that physical education experiences may be related to adult engagement in physical activity ( Glenmark, 1994 ; Telama et al., 1997 ). From an academic performance perspective, longitudinal data on men who enlisted for military service imply that cardiovascular fitness at age 18 predicted cognitive performance in later life (Aberg et al., 2009), thereby supporting the idea of offering physical education and physical activity opportunities well into emerging adulthood through secondary and postsecondary education.

Castelli and colleagues (2007) investigated younger children (in 3rd and 5th grades) and the differential contributions of the various subcomponents of the Fitnessgram ® . Specifically, they examined the individual contributions of aerobic capacity, muscle strength, muscle flexibility, and body composition to performance in mathematics and reading on the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test among a sample of 259 children. Their findings corroborate those of the California Department of Education ( Grissom, 2005 ), indicating a general relationship between fitness and achievement test performance. When the individual components of the Fitnessgram were decomposed, the researchers determined that only aerobic capacity was related to test performance. Muscle strength and flexibility showed no relationship, while an inverse association of BMI with test performance was observed, such that higher BMI was associated with lower test performance. Although Baxter and colleagues (2011) confirmed the importance of attending school in relation to academic performance through the use of 4th-grade student recall, correlations with BMI were not significant.

State-mandated implementation of the coordinated school health model requires all schools in Texas to conduct annual fitness testing using the Fitnessgram among students in grades 3-12. In a special issue of Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport (2010), multiple articles describe the current state of physical fitness among children in Texas; confirm the associations among school performance levels, academic achievement, and physical fitness ( Welk et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2010 ); and demonstrate the ability of qualified physical education teachers to administer physical fitness tests ( Zhu et al., 2010 ). Also using data from Texas schools, Van Dusen and colleagues (2011) found that cardiovascular fitness had the strongest association with academic performance, particularly in mathematics over reading. Unlike previous research, which demonstrated a steady decline in fitness by developmental stage ( Duncan et al., 2007 ), this study found that cardiovascular fitness did decrease but not significantly ( Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Aerobic fitness, then, may be important to academic performance, as there may be a dose-response relationship ( Van Dusen et al., 2011 ).

Using a large sample of students in grades 4-8, Chomitz and colleagues (2008) found that the likelihood of passing both mathematics and English achievement tests increased with the number of fitness tests passed during physical education class, and the odds of passing the mathematics achievement tests were inversely related to higher body weight. Similar to the findings of Castelli and colleagues (2007) , socioeconomic status and demographic factors explained little of the relationship between aerobic fitness and academic performance; however, socioeconomic status may be an explanatory variable for students of low fitness ( London and Castrechini, 2011 ).

In sum, numerous cross-sectional and correlational studies demonstrate small-to-moderate positive or null associations between physical fitness ( Grissom, 2005 ; Cottrell et al., 2007 ; Edwards et al., 2009; Eveland-Sayers et al., 2009 ; Cooper et al., 2010 ; Welk et al., 2010 ; Wittberg et al., 2010 ; Zhu et al., 2010 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ), particularly aerobic fitness, and academic performance ( Castelli et al, 2007 ; Chomitz et al., 2008 ; Roberts et al., 2010 ; Welk et al., 2010 ; Chih and Chen, 2011 ; London and Castrechini, 2011 ; Van Dusen et al., 2011 ). Moreover, the findings may support a dose-response association, suggesting that the more components of physical fitness (e.g., cardiovascular endurance, strength, muscle endurance) considered acceptable for the specific age and gender that are present, the greater the likelihood of successful academic performance. From a public health and policy standpoint, the conclusions these findings support are limited by few causal inferences, a lack of data confirmation, and inadequate reliability because the data were often collected by nonresearchers or through self-report methods. It may also be noted that this research includes no known longitudinal studies and few randomized controlled trials (examples are included later in this chapter in the discussion of the developing brain).

Physical Activity, Physical Education, and Academic Performance

In contrast with the correlational data presented above for physical fitness, more information is needed on the direct effects of participation in physical activity programming and physical education classes on academic performance.

In a meta-analysis, Sibley and Etnier (2003) found a positive relationship between physical activity and cognition in school-age youth (aged 4-18), suggesting that physical activity, as well as physical fitness, may be related to cognitive outcomes during development. Participation in physical activity was related to cognitive performance in eight measurement categories (perceptual skills, IQ, achievement, verbal tests, mathematics tests, memory, developmental level/academic readiness, and “other”), with results indicating a beneficial relationship of physical activity to all cognitive outcomes except memory ( Sibley and Etnier, 2003 ). Since that meta-analysis, however, several papers have reported robust relationships between aerobic fitness and different aspects of memory in children (e.g., Chaddock et al., 2010a , 2011 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 ; Monti et al., 2012 ). Regardless, the comprehensive review of Sibley and Etnier (2003) was important because it helped bring attention to an emerging literature suggesting that physical activity may benefit cognitive development even as it also demonstrated the need for further study to better understand the multifaceted relationship between physical activity and cognitive and brain health.

The regular engagement in physical activity achieved during physical education programming can also be related to academic performance, especially when the class is taught by a physical education teacher. The Sports, Play, and Active Recreation for Kids (SPARK) study examined the effects of a 2-year health-related physical education program on academic performance in children ( Sallis et al., 1999 ). In an experimental design, seven elementary schools were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: (1) a specialist condition in which certified physical education teachers delivered the SPARK curriculum, (2) a trained-teacher condition in which classroom teachers implemented the curriculum, and (3) a control condition in which classroom teachers implemented the local physical education curriculum. No significant differences by condition were found for mathematics testing; however, reading scores were significantly higher in the specialist condition relative to the control condition ( Sallis et al., 1999 ), while language scores were significantly lower in the specialist condition than in the other two conditions. The authors conclude that spending time in physical education with a specialist did not have a negative effect on academic performance. Shortcomings of this research include the amount of data loss from pre- to posttest, the use of results of 2nd-grade testing that exceeded the national average in performance as baseline data, and the use of norm-referenced rather than criterion-based testing.

In seminal research conducted by Gabbard and Barton (1979) , six different conditions of physical activity (no activity; 20, 30, 40, and 50 minutes; and posttest no activity) were completed by 106 2nd graders during physical education. Each physical activity session was followed by 5 minutes of rest and the completion of 36 math problems. The authors found a potential threshold effect whereby only the 50-minute condition improved mathematical performance, with no differences by gender.

A longitudinal study of the kindergarten class of 1998–1999, using data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, investigated the association between enrollment in physical education and academic achievement ( Carlson et al., 2008 ). Higher amounts of physical education were correlated with better academic performance in mathematics among females, but this finding did not hold true for males.

Ahamed and colleagues (2007) found in a cluster randomized trial that, after 16 months of a classroom-based physical activity intervention, there was no significant difference between the treatment and control groups in performance on the standardized Cognitive Abilities Test, Third Edition (CAT-3). Others have found, however, that coordinative exercise ( Budde et al., 2008 ) or bouts of vigorous physical activity during free time ( Coe et al., 2006 ) contribute to higher levels of academic performance. Specifically, Coe and colleagues examined the association of enrollment in physical education and self-reported vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside school with performance in core academic courses and on the Terra Nova Standardized Achievement Test among more than 200 6th-grade students. Their findings indicate that academic performance was unaffected by enrollment in physical education classes, which were found to average only 19 minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity. When time spent engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity outside of school was considered, however, a significant positive relation to academic performance emerged, with more time engaged in vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity being related to better grades but not test scores ( Coe et al., 2006 ).

Studies of participation in sports and academic achievement have found positive associations ( Mechanic and Hansell, 1987 ; Dexter, 1999 ; Crosnoe, 2002 ; Eitle and Eitle, 2002 ; Stephens and Schaben, 2002 ; Eitle, 2005 ; Miller et al., 2005 ; Fox et al., 2010 ; Ruiz et al., 2010 ); higher grade point averages (GPAs) in season than out of season ( Silliker and Quirk, 1997 ); a negative association between cheerleading and science performance ( Hanson and Kraus, 1998 ); and weak and negative associations between the amount of time spent participating in sports and performance in English-language class among 13-, 14-, and 16-year-old students ( Daley and Ryan, 2000 ). Other studies, however, have found no association between participation in sports and academic performance ( Fisher et al., 1996 ). The findings of these studies need to be interpreted with caution as many of their designs failed to account for the level of participation by individuals in the sport (e.g., amount of playing time, type and intensity of physical activity engagement by sport). Further, it is unclear whether policies required students to have higher GPAs to be eligible for participation. Offering sports opportunities is well justified regardless of the cognitive benefits, however, given that adolescents may be less likely to engage in risky behaviors when involved in sports or other extracurricular activities ( Page et al., 1998 ; Elder et al., 2000 ; Taliaferro et al., 2010 ), that participation in sports increases physical fitness, and that affiliation with sports enhances school connectedness.

Although a consensus on the relationship of physical activity to academic achievement has not been reached, the vast majority of available evidence suggests the relationship is either positive or neutral. The meta-analytic review by Fedewa and Ahn (2011) suggests that interventions entailing aerobic physical activity have the greatest impact on academic performance; however, all types of physical activity, except those involving flexibility alone, contribute to enhanced academic performance, as do interventions that use small groups (about 10 students) rather than individuals or large groups. Regardless of the strength of the findings, the literature indicates that time spent engaged in physical activity is beneficial to children because it has not been found to detract from academic performance, and in fact can improve overall health and function ( Sallis et al., 1999 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ; Tomporowski et al., 2008a ; Trudeau and Shephard, 2008 ; Rasberry et al., 2011 ).

Single Bouts of Physical Activity

Beyond formal physical education, evidence suggests that multi-component approaches are a viable means of providing physical activity opportunities for children across the school curriculum (see also Chapter 6 ). Although health-related fitness lessons taught by certified physical education teachers result in greater student fitness gains relative to such lessons taught by other teachers ( Sallis et al., 1999 ), non-physical education teachers are capable of providing opportunities to be physically active within the classroom ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ). Single sessions or bouts of physical activity have independent merit, offering immediate benefits that can enhance the learning experience. Studies have found that single bouts of physical activity result in improved attention ( Hillman et al., 2003 , 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2012 ), better working memory ( Pontifex et al., 2009 ), and increased academic learning time and reduced off-task behaviors ( Mahar et al., 2006 ; Bartholomew and Jowers, 2011 ). Yet single bouts of physical activity have differential effects, as very vigorous exercise has been associated with cognitive fatigue and even cognitive decline in adults ( Tomporowski, 2003 ). As seen in Figure 4-1 , high levels of effort, arousal, or activation can influence perception, decision making, response preparation, and actual response. For discussion of the underlying constructs and differential effects of single bouts of physical activity on cognitive performance, see Tomporowski (2003) .

Information processing: Diagram of a simplified version of Sanders's (1983) cognitive-energetic model of human information processing (adapted from Jones and Hardy, 1989). SOURCE: Tomporowski, 2003. Reprinted with permission.

For children, classrooms are busy places where they must distinguish relevant information from distractions that emerge from many different sources occurring simultaneously. A student must listen to the teacher, adhere to classroom procedures, focus on a specific task, hold and retain information, and make connections between novel information and previous experiences. Hillman and colleagues (2009) demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity walking (60 percent of maximum heart rate) resulted in significant improvements in performance on a task requiring attentional inhibition (e.g., the ability to focus on a single task). These findings were accompanied by changes in neuroelectric measures underlying the allocation of attention (see Figure 4-2 ) and significant improvements on the reading subtest of the Wide Range Achievement Test. No such effects were observed following a similar duration of quiet rest. These findings were later replicated and extended to demonstrate benefits for both mathematics and reading performance in healthy children and those diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( Pontifex et al., 2013 ). Further replications of these findings demonstrated that a single bout of moderate-intensity exercise using a treadmill improved performance on a task of attention and inhibition, but similar benefits were not derived from moderate-intensity exercise that involved exergaming ( O'Leary et al., 2011 ). It was also found that such benefits were derived following cessation of, but not during, the bout of exercise ( Drollette et al., 2012 ). The applications of such empirical findings within the school setting remain unclear.

Effects of a single session of exercise in preadolescent children. SOURCE: Hillman et al., 2009. Reprinted with permission.

A randomized controlled trial entitled Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) used cluster randomization among 24 schools to examine the effects of physically active classroom lessons on BMI and academic achievement ( Donnelly et al., 2009 ). The academically oriented physical activities were intended to be of vigorous or moderate intensity (3–6 metabolic equivalents [METs]) and to last approximately 10 minutes and were specifically designed to supplement content in mathematics, language arts, geography, history, spelling, science, and health. The study followed 665 boys and 677 girls for 3 years as they rose from 2nd or 3rd to 4th or 5th grades. Changes in academic achievement, fitness, and blood screening were considered secondary outcomes. During a 3-year period, students who engaged in physically active lessons, on average, improved their academic achievement by 6 percent, while the control groups exhibited a 1 percent decrease. In students who experienced at least 75 minutes of PAAC lessons per week, BMI remained stable (see Figure 4-3 ).

Change in academic scores from baseline after physically active classroom lessons in elementary schools in northeast Kansas (2003–2006). NOTE: All differences between the Physical Activity Across the Curriculum (PAAC) group ( N = 117) and control (more...)

It is important to note that cognitive tasks completed before, during, and after physical activity show varying effects, but the effects were always positive compared with sedentary behavior. In a study carried out by Drollette and colleagues (2012) , 36 preadolescent children completed two cognitive tasks—a flanker task to assess attention and inhibition and a spatial nback task to assess working memory—before, during, and after seated rest and treadmill walking conditions. The children sat or walked on different days for an average of 19 minutes. The results suggest that the physical activity enhanced cognitive performance for the attention task but not for the task requiring working memory. Accordingly, although more research is needed, the authors suggest that the acute effects of exercise may be selective to certain cognitive processes (i.e., attentional inhibition) while unrelated to others (e.g., working memory). Indeed, data collected using a task-switching paradigm (i.e., a task designed to assess multitasking and requiring the scheduling of attention to multiple aspects of the environment) among 69 overweight and inactive children did not show differences in cognitive performance following acute bouts of treadmill walking or sitting ( Tomporowski et al., 2008b ). Thus, findings to date indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to transient improvements in attention but appear inconsistent for other aspects of cognition.

Academic Learning Time and On- and Off-Task Behaviors

Excessive time on task, inattention to task, off-task behavior, and delinquency are important considerations in the learning environment given the importance of academic learning time to academic performance. These behaviors are observable and of concern to teachers as they detract from the learning environment. Systematic observation by trained observers may yield important insight regarding the effects of short physical activity breaks on these behaviors. Indeed, systematic observations of student behavior have been used as an alternative means of measuring academic performance ( Mahar et al., 2006 ; Grieco et al., 2009 ).

After the development of classroom-based physical activities, called Energizers, teachers were trained in how to implement such activities in their lessons at least twice per week ( Mahar et al., 2006 ). Measurements of baseline physical activity and on-task behaviors were collected in two 3rd-grade and two 4th-grade classes, using pedometers and direct observation. The intervention included 243 students, while 108 served as controls by not engaging in the activities. A subgroup of 62 3rd and 4th graders was observed for on-task behavior in the classroom following the physical activity. Children who participated in Energizers took more steps during the school day than those who did not; they also increased their on-task behaviors by more than 20 percent over baseline measures.

A systematic review of a similar in-class, academically oriented, physical activity plan—Take 10!—was conducted to identify the effects of its implementation after it had been in use for 10 years ( Kibbe et al., 2011 ). The findings suggest that children who experienced Take 10! in the classroom engaged in moderate to vigorous physical activity (6.16 to 6.42 METs) and had lower BMIs than those who did not. Further, children in the Take 10! classrooms had better fluid intelligence ( Reed et al., 2010 ) and higher academic achievement scores ( Donnelly et al., 2009 ).

Some have expressed concern that introducing physical activity into the classroom setting may be distracting to students. Yet in one study it was sedentary students who demonstrated a decrease in time on task, while active students returned to the same level of on-task behavior after an active learning task ( Grieco et al., 2009 ). Among the 97 3rd-grade students in this study, a small but nonsignificant increase in on-task behaviors was seen immediately following these active lessons. Additionally, these improvements were not mediated by BMI.

In sum, although presently understudied, physically active lessons may increase time on task and attention to task in the classroom setting. Given the complexity of the typical classroom, the strategy of including content-specific lessons that incorporate physical activity may be justified.

It is recommended that every child have 20 minutes of recess each day and that this time be outdoors whenever possible, in a safe activity ( NASPE, 2006 ). Consistent engagement in recess can help students refine social skills, learn social mediation skills surrounding fair play, obtain additional minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity that contribute toward the recommend 60 minutes or more per day, and have an opportunity to express their imagination through free play ( Pellegrini and Bohn, 2005 ; see also Chapter 6 ). When children participate in recess before lunch, additional benefits accrue, such as less food waste, increased incidence of appropriate behavior in the cafeteria during lunch, and greater student readiness to learn upon returning to the classroom after lunch ( Getlinger et al., 1996 ; Wechsler et al., 2001 ).

To examine the effects of engagement in physical activity during recess on classroom behavior, Barros and colleagues (2009) examined data from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study on 10,000 8- to 9-year-old children. Teachers provided the number of minutes of recess as well as a ranking of classroom behavior (ranging from “misbehaves frequently” to “behaves exceptionally well”). Results indicate that children who had at least 15 minutes of recess were more likely to exhibit appropriate behavior in the classroom ( Barros et al., 2009 ). In another study, 43 4th-grade students were randomly assigned to 1 or no days of recess to examine the effects on classroom behavior ( Jarrett et al., 1998 ). The researchers concluded that on-task behavior was better among the children who had recess. A moderate effect size (= 0.51) was observed. In a series of studies examining kindergartners' attention to task following a 20-minute recess, increased time on task was observed during learning centers and story reading ( Pellegrini et al., 1995 ). Despite these positive findings centered on improved attention, it is important to note that few of these studies actually measured the intensity of the physical activity during recess.

From a slightly different perspective, survey data from 547 Virginia elementary school principals suggest that time dedicated to student participation in physical education, art, and music did not negatively influence academic performance ( Wilkins et al., 2003 ). Thus, the strategy of reducing time spent in physical education to increase academic performance may not have the desired effect. The evidence on in-school physical activity supports the provision of physical activity breaks during the school day as a way to increase fluid intelligence, time on task, and attention. However, it remains unclear what portion of these effects can be attributed to a break from academic time and what portion is a direct result of the specific demands/characteristics of the physical activity.

• THE DEVELOPING bRAIN, PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, AND BRAIN HEALTH

The study of brain health has grown beyond simply measuring behavioral outcomes such as task performance and reaction time (e.g., cognitive processing speed). New technology has emerged that has allowed scientists to understand the impact of lifestyle factors on the brain from the body systems level down to the molecular level. A greater understanding of the cognitive components that subserve academic performance and may be amenable to intervention has thereby been gained. Research conducted in both laboratory and field settings has helped define this line of inquiry and identify some preliminary underlying mechanisms.

The Evidence Base on the Relationship of Physical Activity to Brain Health and Cognition in Older Adults

Despite the current focus on the relationship of physical activity to cognitive development, the evidence base is larger on the association of physical activity with brain health and cognition during aging. Much can be learned about how physical activity affects childhood cognition and scholastic achievement through this work. Despite earlier investigations into the relationship of physical activity to cognitive aging (see Etnier et al., 1997 , for a review), the field was shaped by the findings of Kramer and colleagues (1999) , who examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on older adults using a randomized controlled design. Specifically, 124 older adults aged 60 and 75 were randomly assigned to a 6-month intervention of either walking (i.e., aerobic training) or flexibility (i.e., nonaerobic) training. The walking group but not the flexibility group showed improved cognitive performance, measured as a shorter response time to the presented stimulus. Results from a series of tasks that tapped different aspects of cognitive control indicated that engagement in physical activity is a beneficial means of combating cognitive aging ( Kramer et al., 1999 ).

Cognitive control, or executive control, is involved in the selection, scheduling, and coordination of computational processes underlying perception, memory, and goal-directed action. These processes allow for the optimization of behavioral interactions within the environment through flexible modulation of the ability to control attention ( MacDonald et al., 2000 ; Botvinick et al., 2001 ). Core cognitive processes that make up cognitive control or executive control include inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility ( Diamond, 2006 ), processes mediated by networks that involve the prefrontal cortex. Inhibition (or inhibitory control) refers to the ability to override a strong internal or external pull so as to act appropriately within the demands imposed by the environment ( Davidson et al., 2006 ). For example, one exerts inhibitory control when one stops speaking when the teacher begins lecturing. Working memory refers to the ability to represent information mentally, manipulate stored information, and act on the information ( Davidson et al., 2006 ). In solving a difficult mathematical problem, for example, one must often remember the remainder. Finally, cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to switch perspectives, focus attention, and adapt behavior quickly and flexibly for the purposes of goal-directed action ( Blair et al., 2005 ; Davidson et al., 2006 ; Diamond, 2006 ). For example, one must shift attention from the teacher who is teaching a lesson to one's notes to write down information for later study.

Based on their earlier findings on changes in cognitive control induced by aerobic training, Colcombe and Kramer (2003) conducted a meta-analysis to examine the relationship between aerobic training and cognition in older adults aged 55-80 using data from 18 randomized controlled exercise interventions. Their findings suggest that aerobic training is associated with general cognitive benefits that are selectively and disproportionately greater for tasks or task components requiring greater amounts of cognitive control. A second and more recent meta-analysis ( Smith et al., 2010 ) corroborates the findings of Colcombe and Kramer, indicating that aerobic exercise is related to attention, processing speed, memory, and cognitive control; however, it should be noted that smaller effect sizes were observed, likely a result of the studies included in the respective meta-analyses. In older adults, then, aerobic training selectively improves cognition.

Hillman and colleagues (2006) examined the relationship between physical activity and inhibition (one aspect of cognitive control) using a computer-based stimulus-response protocol in 241 individuals aged 15-71. Their results indicate that greater amounts of physical activity are related to decreased response speed across task conditions requiring variable amounts of inhibition, suggesting a generalized relationship between physical activity and response speed. In addition, the authors found physical activity to be related to better accuracy across conditions in older adults, while no such relationship was observed for younger adults. Of interest, this relationship was disproportionately larger for the condition requiring greater amounts of inhibition in the older adults, suggesting that physical activity has both a general and selective association with task performance ( Hillman et al., 2006 ).

With advances in neuroimaging techniques, understanding of the effects of physical activity and aerobic fitness on brain structure and function has advanced rapidly over the past decade. In particular, a series of studies ( Colcombe et al., 2003 , 2004 , 2006 ; Kramer and Erickson, 2007 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ) of older individuals has been conducted to elucidate the relation of aerobic fitness to the brain and cognition. Normal aging results in the loss of brain tissue ( Colcombe et al., 2003 ), with markedly larger loss evidenced in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions ( Raz, 2000 ). Thus cognitive functions subserved by these brain regions (such as those involved in cognitive control and aspects of memory) are expected to decay more dramatically than other aspects of cognition.

Colcombe and colleagues (2003) investigated the relationship of aerobic fitness to gray and white matter tissue loss using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in 55 healthy older adults aged 55-79. They observed robust age-related decreases in tissue density in the frontal, temporal, and parietal regions using voxel-based morphometry, a technique used to assess brain volume. Reductions in the amount of tissue loss in these regions were observed as a function of fitness. Given that the brain structures most affected by aging also demonstrated the greatest fitness-related sparing, these initial findings provide a biological basis for fitness-related benefits to brain health during aging.

In a second study, Colcombe and colleagues (2006) examined the effects of aerobic fitness training on brain structure using a randomized controlled design with 59 sedentary healthy adults aged 60-79. The treatment group received a 6-month aerobic exercise (i.e., walking) intervention, while the control group received a stretching and toning intervention that did not include aerobic exercise. Results indicated that gray and white matter brain volume increased for those who received the aerobic fitness training intervention. No such results were observed for those assigned to the stretching and toning group. Specifically, those assigned to the aerobic training intervention demonstrated increased gray matter in the frontal lobes, including the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, the supplementary motor area, the middle frontal gyrus, the dorsolateral region of the right inferior frontal gyrus, and the left superior temporal lobe. White matter volume changes also were evidenced following the aerobic fitness intervention, with increases in white matter tracts being observed within the anterior third of the corpus callosum. These brain regions are important for cognition, as they have been implicated in the cognitive control of attention and memory processes. These findings suggest that aerobic training not only spares age-related loss of brain structures but also may in fact enhance the structural health of specific brain regions.

In addition to the structural changes noted above, research has investigated the relationship between aerobic fitness and changes in brain function. That is, aerobic fitness training has also been observed to induce changes in patterns of functional activation. Functional MRI (fMRI) measures, which make it possible to image activity in the brain while an individual is performing a cognitive task, have revealed that aerobic training induces changes in patterns of functional activation. This approach involves inferring changes in neuronal activity from alteration in blood flow or metabolic activity in the brain. In a seminal paper, Colcombe and colleagues (2004) examined the relationship of aerobic fitness to brain function and cognition across two studies with older adults. In the first study, 41 older adult participants (mean age ~66) were divided into higher- and lower-fit groups based on their performance on a maximal exercise test. In the second study, 29 participants (aged 58-77) were recruited and randomly assigned to either a fitness training (i.e., walking) or control (i.e., stretching and toning) intervention. In both studies, participants were given a task requiring variable amounts of attention and inhibition. Results indicated that fitness (study 1) and fitness training (study 2) were related to greater activation in the middle frontal gyrus and superior parietal cortex; these regions of the brain are involved in attentional control and inhibitory functioning, processes entailed in the regulation of attention and action. These changes in neural activation were related to significant improvements in performance on the cognitive control task of attention and inhibition.

Taken together, the findings across studies suggest that an increase in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, is related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function and may underlie improvements in cognition across tasks requiring cognitive control. Although developmental differences exist, the general paradigm of this research can be applied to early stages of the life span, and some early attempts to do so have been made, as described below. Given the focus of this chapter on childhood cognition, it should be noted that this section has provided only a brief and arguably narrow look at the research on physical activity and cognitive aging. Considerable work has detailed the relationship of physical activity to other aspects of adult cognition using behavioral and neuroimaging tools (e.g., Boecker, 2011 ). The interested reader is referred to a number of review papers and meta-analyses describing the relationship of physical activity to various aspects of cognitive and brain health ( Etnier et al., 1997 ; Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ; Tomporowski, 2003 ; Thomas et al., 2012 ).

Child Development, Brain Structure, and Function

Certain aspects of development have been linked with experience, indicating an intricate interplay between genetic programming and environmental influences. Gray matter, and the organization of synaptic connections in particular, appears to be at least partially dependent on experience (NRC/IOM, 2000; Taylor, 2006 ), with the brain exhibiting a remarkable ability to reorganize itself in response to input from sensory systems, other cortical systems, or insult ( Huttenlocher and Dabholkar, 1997 ). During typical development, experience shapes the pruning process through the strengthening of neural networks that support relevant thoughts and actions and the elimination of unnecessary or redundant connections. Accordingly, the brain responds to experience in an adaptive or “plastic” manner, resulting in the efficient and effective adoption of thoughts, skills, and actions relevant to one's interactions within one's environmental surroundings. Examples of neural plasticity in response to unique environmental interaction have been demonstrated in human neuroimaging studies of participation in music ( Elbert et al., 1995 ; Chan et al., 1998 ; Münte et al., 2001 ) and sports ( Hatfield and Hillman, 2001 ; Aglioti et al., 2008 ), thus supporting the educational practice of providing music education and opportunities for physical activity to children.

Effects of Regular Engagement in Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Brain Structure

Recent advances in neuroimaging techniques have rapidly advanced understanding of the role physical activity and aerobic fitness may have in brain structure. In children a growing body of correlational research suggests differential brain structure related to aerobic fitness. Chaddock and colleagues (2010a , b ) showed a relationship among aerobic fitness, brain volume, and aspects of cognition and memory. Specifically, Chaddock and colleagues (2010a) assigned 9- to 10-year-old preadolescent children to lower- and higher-fitness groups as a function of their scores on a maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2 max) test, which is considered the gold-standard measure of aerobic fitness. They observed larger bilateral hippocampal volume in higher-fit children using MRI, as well as better performance on a task of relational memory. It is important to note that relational memory has been shown to be mediated by the hippocampus ( Cohen and Eichenbaum, 1993 ; Cohen et al., 1999 ). Further, no differences emerged for a task condition requiring item memory, which is supported by structures outside the hippocampus, suggesting selectivity among the aspects of memory that benefit from higher amounts of fitness. Lastly, hippocampal volume was positively related to performance on the relational memory task but not the item memory task, and bilateral hippocampal volume was observed to mediate the relationship between fitness and relational memory ( Chaddock et al., 2010a ). Such findings are consistent with behavioral measures of relational memory in children ( Chaddock et al., 2011 ) and neuroimaging findings in older adults ( Erickson et al., 2009 , 2011 ) and support the robust nonhuman animal literature demonstrating the effects of exercise on cell proliferation ( Van Praag et al., 1999 ) and survival ( Neeper et al., 1995 ) in the hippocampus.

In a second investigation ( Chaddock et al., 2010b ), higher- and lower-fit children (aged 9-10) underwent an MRI to determine whether structural differences might be found that relate to performance on a cognitive control task that taps attention and inhibition. The authors observed differential findings in the basal ganglia, a subcortical structure involved in the interplay of cognition and willed action. Specifically, higher-fit children exhibited greater volume in the dorsal striatum (i.e., caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus) relative to lower-fit children, while no differences were observed in the ventral striatum. Such findings are not surprising given the role of the dorsal striatum in cognitive control and response resolution ( Casey et al., 2008 ; Aron et al., 2009 ), as well as the growing body of research in children and adults indicating that higher levels of fitness are associated with better control of attention, memory, and cognition ( Colcombe and Kramer, 2003 ; Hillman et al., 2008 ; Chang and Etnier, 2009 ). Chaddock and colleagues (2010b) further observed that higher-fit children exhibited increased inhibitory control and response resolution and that higher basal ganglia volume was related to better task performance. These findings indicate that the dorsal striatum is involved in these aspects of higher-order cognition and that fitness may influence cognitive control during preadolescent development. It should be noted that both studies described above were correlational in nature, leaving open the possibility that other factors related to fitness and/or the maturation of subcortical structures may account for the observed group differences.

Effects of Regular Engagement in Physical Activity and Physical Fitness on Brain Function

Other research has attempted to characterize fitness-related differences in brain function using fMRI and event-related brain potentials (ERPs), which are neuroelectric indices of functional brain activation in the electro-encephalographic time series. To date, few randomized controlled interventions have been conducted. Notably, Davis and colleagues (2011) conducted one such intervention lasting approximately 14 weeks that randomized 20 sedentary overweight preadolescent children into an after-school physical activity intervention or a nonactivity control group. The fMRI data collected during an antisaccade task, which requires inhibitory control, indicated increased bilateral activation of the prefrontal cortex and decreased bilateral activation of the posterior parietal cortex following the physical activity intervention relative to the control group. Such findings illustrate some of the neural substrates influenced by participation in physical activity. Two additional correlational studies ( Voss et al., 2011 ; Chaddock et al., 2012 ) compared higher- and lower-fit preadolescent children and found differential brain activation and superior task performance as a function of fitness. That is, Chaddock and colleagues (2012) observed increased activation in prefrontal and parietal brain regions during early task blocks and decreased activation during later task blocks in higher-fit relative to lower-fit children. Given that higher-fit children outperformed lower-fit children on the aspects of the task requiring the greatest amount of cognitive control, the authors reason that the higher-fit children were more capable of adapting neural activity to meet the demands imposed by tasks that tapped higher-order cognitive processes such as inhibition and goal maintenance. Voss and colleagues (2011) used a similar task to vary cognitive control requirements and found that higher-fit children outperformed their lower-fit counterparts and that such differences became more pronounced during task conditions requiring the upregulation of control. Further, several differences emerged across various brain regions that together make up the network associated with cognitive control. Collectively, these differences suggest that higher-fit children are more efficient in the allocation of resources in support of cognitive control operations.

Other imaging research has examined the neuroelectric system (i.e., ERPs) to investigate which cognitive processes occurring between stimulus engagement and response execution are influenced by fitness. Several studies ( Hillman et al., 2005 , 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ) have examined the P3 component of the stimulus-locked ERP and demonstrated that higher-fit children have larger-amplitude and shorter-latency ERPs relative to their lower-fit peers. Classical theory suggests that P3 relates to neuronal activity associated with revision of the mental representation of the previous event within the stimulus environment ( Donchin, 1981 ). P3 amplitude reflects the allocation of attentional resources when working memory is updated ( Donchin and Coles, 1988 ) such that P3 is sensitive to the amount of attentional resources allocated to a stimulus ( Polich, 1997 ; Polich and Heine, 2007 ). P3 latency generally is considered to represent stimulus evaluation and classification speed ( Kutas et al., 1977 ; Duncan-Johnson, 1981 ) and thus may be considered a measure of stimulus detection and evaluation time ( Magliero et al., 1984 ; Ila and Polich, 1999 ). Therefore the above findings suggest that higher-fit children allocate greater attentional resources and have faster cognitive processing speed relative to lower-fit children ( Hillman et al., 2005 , 2009 ), with additional research suggesting that higher-fit children also exhibit greater flexibility in the allocation of attentional resources, as indexed by greater modulation of P3 amplitude across tasks that vary in the amount of cognitive control required ( Pontifex et al., 2011 ). Given that higher-fit children also demonstrate better performance on cognitive control tasks, the P3 component appears to reflect the effectiveness of a subset of cognitive systems that support willed action ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ).

Two ERP studies ( Hillman et al., 2009 ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ) have focused on aspects of cognition involved in action monitoring. That is, the error-related negativity (ERN) component was investigated in higher- and lower-fit children to determine whether differences in evaluation and regulation of cognitive control operations were influenced by fitness level. The ERN component is observed in response-locked ERP averages. It is often elicited by errors of commission during task performance and is believed to represent either the detection of errors during task performance ( Gehring et al., 1993 ; Holroyd and Coles, 2002 ) or more generally the detection of response conflict ( Botvinick et al., 2001 ; Yeung et al., 2004 ), which may be engendered by errors in response production. Several studies have reported that higher-fit children exhibit smaller ERN amplitude during rapid-response tasks (i.e., instructions emphasizing speed of responding; Hillman et al., 2009 ) and more flexibility in the allocation of these resources during tasks entailing variable cognitive control demands, as evidenced by changes in ERN amplitude for higher-fit children and no modulation of ERN in lower-fit children ( Pontifex et al., 2011 ). Collectively, this pattern of results suggests that children with lower levels of fitness allocate fewer attentional resources during stimulus engagement (P3 amplitude) and exhibit slower cognitive processing speed (P3 latency) but increased activation of neural resources involved in the monitoring of their actions (ERN amplitude). Alternatively, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to environmental stimuli and demonstrate less reliance on action monitoring (increasing resource allocation only to meet the demands of the task). Under more demanding task conditions, the strategy of lower-fit children appears to fail since they perform more poorly under conditions requiring the upregulation of cognitive control.

Finally, only one randomized controlled trial published to date has used ERPs to assess neurocognitive function in children. Kamijo and colleagues (2011) studied performance on a working memory task before and after a 9-month physical activity intervention compared with a wait-list control group. They observed better performance following the physical activity intervention during task conditions that required the upregulation of working memory relative to the task condition requiring lesser amounts of working memory. Further, increased activation of the contingent negative variation (CNV), an ERP component reflecting cognitive and motor preparation, was observed at posttest over frontal scalp sites in the physical activity intervention group. No differences in performance or brain activation were noted for the wait-list control group. These findings suggest an increase in cognitive preparation processes in support of a more effective working memory network resulting from prolonged participation in physical activity. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity as part of an after-school program is particularly beneficial for tasks that require the use of working memory.

Adiposity and Risk for Metabolic Syndrome as It Relates to Cognitive Health

A related and emerging literature that has recently been popularized investigates the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance. Several reports ( Datar et al., 2004 ; Datar and Sturm, 2006 ; Judge and Jahns, 2007 ; Gable et al., 2012 ) on this relationship are based on large-scale datasets derived from the Early Child Longitudinal Study. Further, nonhuman animal research has been used to elucidate the relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health (see Figure 4-4 for an overview of these relationships). Collectively, these studies observed poorer future academic performance among children who entered school overweight or moved from a healthy weight to overweight during the course of development. Corroborating evidence for a negative relationship between adiposity and academic performance may be found in smaller but more tightly controlled studies. As noted above, Castelli and colleagues (2007) observed poorer performance on the mathematics and reading portions of the Illinois Standardized Achievement Test in 3rd- and 5th-grade students as a function of higher BMI, and Donnelly and colleagues (2009) used a cluster randomized trial to demonstrate that physical activity in the classroom decreased BMI and improved academic achievement among pre-adolescent children.

Relationships between health indices and cognitive and brain health. NOTE: AD = Alzheimer's disease; PD = Parkinson's disease. SOURCE: Cotman et al., 2007. Reprinted with permission.

Recently published reports describe the relationship between adiposity and cognitive and brain health to advance understanding of the basic cognitive processes and neural substrates that may underlie the adiposity-achievement relationship. Bolstered by findings in adult populations (e.g., Debette et al., 2010 ; Raji et al., 2010 ; Carnell et al., 2011 ), researchers have begun to publish data on preadolescent populations indicating differences in brain function and cognitive performance related to adiposity (however, see Gunstad et al., 2008 , for an instance in which adiposity was unrelated to cognitive outcomes). Specifically, Kamijo and colleagues (2012a) examined the relationship of weight status to cognitive control and academic achievement in 126 children aged 7-9. The children completed a battery of cognitive control tasks, and their body composition was assessed using dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA). The authors found that higher BMI and greater amounts of fat mass (particularly in the midsection) were related to poorer performance on cognitive control tasks involving inhibition, as well as lower academic achievement. In follow-up studies, Kamijo and colleagues (2012b) investigated whether neural markers of the relationship between adiposity and cognition may be found through examination of ERP data. These studies compared healthy-weight and obese children and found a differential distribution of the P3 potential (i.e., less frontally distributed) and larger N2 amplitude, as well as smaller ERN magnitude, in obese children during task conditions that required greater amounts of inhibitory control ( Kamijo et al., 2012c ). Taken together, the above results suggest that obesity is associated with less effective neural processes during stimulus capture and response execution. As a result, obese children perform tasks more slowly ( Kamijo et al., 2012a ) and are less accurate ( Kamijo et al., 2012b , c ) in response to tasks requiring variable amounts of cognitive control. Although these data are correlational, they provide a basis for further study using other neuroimaging tools (e.g., MRI, fMRI), as well as a rationale for the design and implementation of randomized controlled studies that would allow for causal interpretation of the relationship of adiposity to cognitive and brain health. The next decade should provide a great deal of information on this relationship.

• LIMITATIONS

Despite the promising findings described in this chapter, it should be noted that the study of the relationship of childhood physical activity, aerobic fitness, and adiposity to cognitive and brain health and academic performance is in its early stages. Accordingly, most studies have used designs that afford correlation rather than causation. To date, in fact, only two randomized controlled trials ( Davis et al., 2011 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 ) on this relationship have been published. However, several others are currently ongoing, and it was necessary to provide evidence through correlational studies before investing the effort, time, and funding required for more demanding causal studies. Given that the evidence base in this area has grown exponentially in the past 10 years through correlational studies and that causal evidence has accumulated through adult and nonhuman animal studies, the next step will be to increase the amount of causal evidence available on school-age children.

Accomplishing this will require further consideration of demographic factors that may moderate the physical activity–cognition relationship. For instance, socioeconomic status has a unique relationship with physical activity ( Estabrooks et al., 2003 ) and cognitive control ( Mezzacappa, 2004 ). Although many studies have attempted to control for socioeconomic status (see Hillman et al., 2009 ; Kamijo et al., 2011 , 2012a , b , c ; Pontifex et al., 2011 ), further inquiry into its relationship with physical activity, adiposity, and cognition is warranted to determine whether it may serve as a potential mediator or moderator for the observed relationships. A second demographic factor that warrants further consideration is gender. Most authors have failed to describe gender differences when reporting on the physical activity–cognition literature. However, studies of adiposity and cognition have suggested that such a relationship may exist (see Datar and Sturm, 2006 ). Additionally, further consideration of age is warranted. Most studies have examined a relatively narrow age range, consisting of a few years. Such an approach often is necessary because of maturation and the need to develop comprehensive assessment tools that suit the various stages of development. However, this approach has yielded little understanding of how the physical activity–cognition relationship may change throughout the course of maturation.

Finally, although a number of studies have described the relationship of physical activity, fitness, and adiposity to standardized measures of academic performance, few attempts have been made to observe the relationship within the context of the educational environment. Standardized tests, although necessary to gauge knowledge, may not be the most sensitive measures for (the process of) learning. Future research will need to do a better job of translating promising laboratory findings to the real world to determine the value of this relationship in ecologically valid settings.

From an authentic and practical to a mechanistic perspective, physically active and aerobically fit children consistently outperform their inactive and unfit peers academically on both a short- and a long-term basis. Time spent engaged in physical activity is related not only to a healthier body but also to enriched cognitive development and lifelong brain health. Collectively, the findings across the body of literature in this area suggest that increases in aerobic fitness, derived from physical activity, are related to improvements in the integrity of brain structure and function that underlie academic performance. The strongest relationships have been found between aerobic fitness and performance in mathematics, reading, and English. For children in a school setting, regular participation in physical activity is particularly beneficial with respect to tasks that require working memory and problem solving. These findings are corroborated by the results of both authentic correlational studies and experimental randomized controlled trials. Overall, the benefits of additional time dedicated to physical education and other physical activity opportunities before, during, and after school outweigh the benefits of exclusive utilization of school time for academic learning, as physical activity opportunities offered across the curriculum do not inhibit academic performance.

Both habitual and single bouts of physical activity contribute to enhanced academic performance. Findings indicate a robust relationship of acute exercise to increased attention, with evidence emerging for a relationship between participation in physical activity and disciplinary behaviors, time on task, and academic performance. Specifically, higher-fit children allocate greater resources to a given task and demonstrate less reliance on environmental cues or teacher prompting.

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• Cite this Page Committee on Physical Activity and Physical Education in the School Environment; Food and Nutrition Board; Institute of Medicine; Kohl HW III, Cook HD, editors. Educating the Student Body: Taking Physical Activity and Physical Education to School. Washington (DC): National Academies Press (US); 2013 Oct 30. 4, Physical Activity, Fitness, and Physical Education: Effects on Academic Performance.
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Classroom PE Games

These games are designed to maximize activity for kids in confined spaces (such as the classroom). Some of these games are high-intensity, some are based on movement that stimulates brain activity, and some are designed with the simple goal of getting kids up, active and happy to move. As every confined space and classroom is different, with its own set of challenges and hazards, please be sure to adapt these games so that they can work well for your kids and your space. The ideal spot to start for activity in confined spaces is with fitness circuits; so if you haven’t yet visited our fitness circuit section, we recommend you check it out! In order to get the most out of these games, try and avoid lag time during transitions. In order to do this, be sure that you have the next part of the activity ready to go (with a verbal cue, movement strategy or breathing exercise), so that the kids can move as seamlessly as possible from one motion to the next throughout the game.

Crazy Moves

Equipment: none Description: This is a great game from our full-length section that can easily be transitioned into the classroom. For the number portion of the game, instead of having the kids stand on mats, you can have them run to predetermined desks and put their...

A Wolf In Sheep’s Clothing

Equipment: NONE Description: Have everyone start with their heads down and eyes closed on their desks. Tap one person on the head (this person is the wolf). Tell everyone else to decide if they are a dog, a cat or a chicken, and make sure that they don’t tell anyone....

Crazy Sign Language

Equipment: NONE Description: With the students’ suggestions, the teacher assigns an action to the numbers 1-5. When the teacher holds up one of the numbers on his/her hand, the students must stand up, do the corresponding action, and then sit back down at their desks....

Tricky Tower

Equipment: 2-3 objects per student, taken from their desks. Description: Have kids make 3-5 lines at one end of the classroom. Have a desk at the end for each line of students. Each student must bring 2-3 objects from their desk with them into their line. When the...

Assembly Line

Equipment: NONE Description: Have one student come up to the front of the class and start to perform a repetitive movement (with or without sound). Once the rest of the class has had a chance to observe the movement, ask for volunteers to see who can add on to the...

R.P.S. Cheer

Equipment: NONE Description: For this game you are trying to get the biggest cheering section behind you. Everyone starts by finding someone else to play Rock, Paper, Scissors with. The winner gets to continue on in the game, finding someone else to play against. The...

Equipment: NONE Description: The object of this game is to not let your worm get squished inside his hole. Have all of the kids form a circle. Each player sticks their right index finger out, and makes a hole with their left hand using their thumb and index finger....

Class Concert

Equipment: NONE Description: In groups, kids must make up an action that goes with a sound. It must be an action and sound that can be repeated over and over. Place the groups around the class so that it is easy to see which group the teacher is pointing at. If the...

Equipment: 4 Chairs. Description: Place 4 chairs around the classroom. Everyone starts as a duck, which means they must walk around the class, knees bent, arms folded into wings at their sides. When they meet another duck, they must have a Duck Duel. To do this, they...

Equipment: 3-5 playing cards per student. Description: Give each student a handful of mixed up playing cards. When the teacher says “Go,” students have 5 seconds to find one other person to play. The teacher will then say, “The winner gets to do...” and will then give...

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Small Space Games: No Gym, No Field, No Problem!

Don’t have access to your gym or field for class today? Here are a few indoor PE games for small spaces for the days where the gym and field at your school are being used by other classes or departments!

Let’s face it; the gym is a popular place to host events other than our Physical Education classes. I cannot count the number of times our PE classes have been uprooted because of another event needing the space. Whether, it’s an assembly, a dress rehearsal for the school drama club, or Music class needing the stage, I always greet this problem outwardly with a smile and the willingness to be flexible. After all, we are all one school, right? There is no need to be upset or frustrated because it’s not going to change the fact that someone else needs the space. Internally however, I may be a little freaked out.

Why, you ask? Because going outside is not as easy as stated. I love how everybody thinks so: “Ah, just take the kids outside and let’em run around!” Sure. It might work out sometimes, but weather is unpredictable…and plan B sometimes just doesn’t work out. Bring on plan C: “ No Gym, No Field, No Problem!”  

At times, when uprooted from our gym space, I find us in the cafeteria, classroom, or hallway. Each having its own set of issues we have to plan around. So, if you find your classes in a similar non conventional PE space situation, here is a list of activities for you to consider.

5 Great Indoor PE Games for Small Spaces:

• Hallway Foosball : Two teams of students are seated in a straight line facing opposite ways from each other. Using a ball of your choice: foam activity ball , beach ball , soccer ball …I prefer a playground ball . The students try to score by only using their inside hand, and moving the ball forward in the direction their line is sitting. After a few rounds, have the students rotate in their spot switching the direction of play and hand.
• Hula Hoop Chain: Two teams of students holding hands and facing each other forming two parallel human chains. Start a hula hoop on one end of each chain. On the word “go,” students climb through the hoop maintaining their chain allowing the hoop to travel down the line to each student. The first team to get their hoop all the way through their line wins!
• Hop in a Hoop! Scatter hula hoops around the hallway; give the students a locomotor skill, way of travel, or an exercise they need to perform. On the word “go,” students travel thru the hallway not touching any hoops performing the given movement. Call out a number and the students have to stop and find a hoop, filling the hoop with the number called. No more, no less. Once the hoop has the right number of students, students raise their hoop to their waist to prevent anyone else from entering into their hoop.  
• Fitness lines: Set up 1 piece of fitness equipment or given exercise in a straight line all the way down the hall. For example in one long straight line I may have the following spaced out appropriately: Aerobic step , jump jacks, bicep curls (dumbbells) , calve raises, sit-ups, push-ups, lunges, water break, jog back to start, rest 30secs. Depending on the width of your hallway determines how many fitness lines you can have. Students rotate through the fitness line moving one spot up on the signal, once students finish their way through the line they walk/jog/sprint back to the begin, rest a rotation, and then start again.
• Reaction Games: place a beanbag in the middle of partners and call out a way for the students to react. Example: Grab with Right hand, place beanbag on left knee OR have students in small groups and place a beanbag in the center. Call out different things like touch your ears, right hand on top of your head, hop up and down, students perform what is called and on the word “GO” students try to be the first to grab the beanbag.

Do you have tables in your way?

Try doing a rhythm activity using the popular cup song . This is my usual “we’re in the cafeteria today” activity. It’s simple, fun, and all you need is a cup per student. This activity can be done on the floor as well and afterwards, our students like to try and make up their own patterns.

Add It Together : This game is played like “rock, paper, scissor,” but it’s a game to practice math! To start have the students pair up together and sit down (if using desks, one stands and the other sits in the desk). Partners first need to determine which one will be even and which one will be odd. To begin play the students will say, “Add it together” and put up any number of fingers 1-5, then the two students add up their fingers and determine if it’s an odd number or an even number. The winner gets up and finds a new partner who is sitting down. Have older students? Change the game to Mul-ti-ply same game but students multiply the number together.

Speedstack Stations : this is another one of my go to activities when we have tables in the way. Set up a various stations and have students rotate through.

Access to technology?

I love it when I am able to incorporate technology into my PE classes. A PE in the classroom lifesaver is YouTube. There are tons of popular dance games from gaming systems where the students can follow a long. The Sid Shuffle is one of our favorites. Search for it. 

So the next time you find your class is displaced from your gym and in a non conventional PE space, and weather doesn’t cooperate, smile and know you have a plan C. No Gym, No Field, No Problem!

Related Blogs: – Top 5 Active Indoor PE Games by Jason Gemberling – 5 by Resources to Take Net Games to the Next Level by Jessica Shawley – Identifying Suitable PE Teaching Spaces by Peter Boucher Indoor PE Games for Small Spaces:

– Giant Up 4 It: Match 4 giant checkers in a row to win! – ACTION! ToppleTubes Set: Topple Tubes are small in size, but BIG in versatility and durability! – ACTION! DigitDrop Set: Crunch numbers with this fun bowling game.

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4 Strategies for Integrating Classroom Content Into Physical Education

With an increased emphasis on standardized test scores, non-tested subjects — such as physical education — experience cuts in both class time and budget. Now more than ever, it is important for us physical educators to advocate for ourselves, the field, and most importantly, our students.

Establishing collaborative relationships and integrating classroom content into physical education is a great way to advocate. Collaboration not only strengthens the relationships between teachers, but it also helps students make meaningful connections between content across subject areas.

Physical education is an excellent setting to integrate concepts from the classroom, whether the subject is English, language arts, math, science, or social studies. For starters, movement is exciting and fun for the students. Further, research has found a link between physical activity and improved learning.

Activity Templates for Integrating Classroom Content

Because we are not experts in classroom content, knowing where to start can present a challenge. That’s where this article comes in!

We created four activity templates to help integrate any classroom content into physical education. The templates are versatile in that they can be used as warm-ups, as reviews of previous knowledge (in either subject), or as the focus of a complete lesson.

The four templates have been named If – Then , Knowledge Tag , Out and Back , and Dice Roll and Solve .

• Knowledge Tag takes your basic tag concept and adds an exciting classroom content challenge. The student who gets tagged must correctly complete the task on the index card before resuming play. Successful completion of the task can result in the student being freed/unfrozen or the student becoming the tagger. Spelling words, math problems, state capitals, countries and their continents, shapes, formulas, and body parts are examples of content you can put on the index cards.
• Out and Back is a relay-style activity aimed at pairing locomotor or ball skills with problem solving tasks. Small teams of students perform designated tasks (e.g. run, skip, dribble) across the gym to collect a card from the team pile. Once all cards are collected, each team works together to complete the classroom content task. For example, students can dribble a soccer ball down, pick up a card with a word on it, and then dribble the ball back to their next teammate in line. Students then sort the words into piles based on their part of speech (noun, verb, adjective, adverb, etc.).
• The integrated activity of Dice Roll and Solve allows teachers to connect math with physical education, and it is fairly easy to instruct. You need insertable or write-on foam dice for this activity. One die has the math problem on it, and the other die represents the movement task. The teacher or the students roll the dice and then solve the math problem. The answer to the math problem represents the number of repetitions the students complete the movement task. A great way to use this activity is with warm-up exercises.

The purpose of these activities and our article is to provide physical education teachers with simple advocacy strategies to support the school mission by reinforcing classroom content.

Through these strategies, it is our hope that physical education teachers create positive relationships with their teaching colleagues, improve their status within the school, and further contribute to student learning.

To learn more about these four strategies, read our article titled “ Strategies for Connecting Activities in Physical Education and the Classroom ” in the November/December 2019 issue of Strategies .

Additional Resources

• Strategies Free Access Articles
• SHAPE America Teacher’s Toolbox
• Classroom-Ready Resources in the SHAPE America Digital Download Library

Brenna Cosgrove is a Ph.D. candidate in the School of Kinesiology at Auburn University, studying physical education. She earned her B.S. in health and physical education from Edinboro University, taught physical education in a middle school, and completed her M.S. in exercise physiology at James Madison University. Brenna can be contacted at [email protected] .

Jessica Richards is a Ph.D. candidate in the School of Kinesiology at Auburn University. She earned her B.S. in physical education and her M.S. in sport and fitness management from Troy University. At Auburn, Jessica is concentrating her doctoral studies in physical education. Jessica can be contacted at [email protected] .

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• Physical Activity Basics
• Guidelines and Recommendations
• Add Physical Activity as an Older Adult
• Benefits of Physical Activity
• Overcoming Barriers
• Health Benefits of Physical Activity
• Places to Be Physically Active
• Adding Physical Activity as an Adult
• Making Physical Activity Part of a Child's Life

Physical Activity for Children: An Overview

• Children 3 to 5 need to be active throughout the day.
• Children and adolescents 6 to 17 need to be active for at least 60 minutes every day.

Recommendations

The amount and types of physical activity recommended vary by a child's age.

Children 3 to 5

• Should be physically active throughout the day for growth and development.
• Adult caregivers should encourage children to be active when they play, for example by jumping or riding a tricycle.

Children and adolescents 6 to 17

This group needs 60 minutes or more of moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity each day, including:

• Aerobic activity: Most of the daily 60 minutes or more should include activities such as walking, running, or anything that makes their hearts beat faster. At least 3 days a week should include vigorous-intensity activities.
• Muscle-strengthening: Includes activities like climbing or doing push-ups, at least 3 days a week.
• Bone-strengthening: Includes activities such as jumping or running, at least 3 days a week.

Sixty minutes of activity a day may sound like a lot, but don't worry! Your children may already be meeting the recommended physical activity levels. Learn ways to encourage children to participate in a variety of activities that are age-appropriate and enjoyable.

Want to see what counts? Check out examples of aerobic, muscle-strengthening, and bone-strengthening activities for children and adolescents.

Also, school-based physical activity can help children meet the recommended 60 minutes or more of daily physical activity.

Resource‎

Common questions, how do i measure aerobic intensity.

On a scale of 0 to 10, where sitting is a 0 and the highest level of physical activity is 10, moderate-intensity activity is 5 or 6. Vigorous-intensity activity is 7 or 8.

When children engage in moderate-intensity activity, their hearts beat faster and they breathe much harder than when they are at rest or sitting. When children walk to school with friends each morning, they're probably doing moderate-intensity aerobic activity. But when children run or chase others while playing tag during recess, they're probably doing vigorous-intensity activity.

What are age-appropriate activities?

Some physical activity is better suited for children than adolescents. For example, younger children usually strengthen their muscles when they do gymnastics, play on a jungle gym, or climb trees.

Children do not usually need formal muscle-strengthening programs, such as weightlifting. As children grow older and become adolescents, they may start structured weightlifting programs. They may do these types of programs along with their sports team practices.

How do I make physical activity part of a child's life?

There are many ways to make physical activity part of a child or adolescent's life. Learn more here .

• Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans , 2 nd Edition
• Health Benefits of Physical Activity for Children
• Move Your Way ® fact sheet for parents

Want additional tips and resources to be active? Learn about Active People, Healthy Nation SM , CDC’s national initiative to help people be more physically active.

Regular physical activity is one of the most important things you can do for your health. Learn about the benefits of physical activity and what you can do.