topics for a linguistic research paper

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211 Research Topics in Linguistics To Get Top Grades

Many people find it hard to decide on their linguistics research topics because of the assumed complexities involved. They struggle to choose easy research paper topics for English language too because they think it could be too simple for a university or college level certificate.

All that you need to learn about Linguistics and English is sprawled across syntax, phonetics, morphology, phonology, semantics, grammar, vocabulary, and a few others. To easily create a top-notch essay or conduct a research study, you can consider this list of research topics in English language below for your university or college use. Note that you can fine-tune these to suit your interests.

Linguistics Research Paper Topics

If you want to study how language is applied and its importance in the world, you can consider these Linguistics topics for your research paper. They are:

An analysis of romantic ideas and their expression amongst French people
An overview of the hate language in the course against religion
Identify the determinants of hate language and the means of propagation
Evaluate a literature and examine how Linguistics is applied to the understanding of minor languages
Consider the impact of social media in the development of slangs
An overview of political slang and its use amongst New York teenagers
Examine the relevance of Linguistics in a digitalized world
Analyze foul language and how it’s used to oppress minors
Identify the role of language in the national identity of a socially dynamic society
Attempt an explanation to how the language barrier could affect the social life of an individual in a new society
Discuss the means through which language can enrich cultural identities
Examine the concept of bilingualism and how it applies in the real world
Analyze the possible strategies for teaching a foreign language
Discuss the priority of teachers in the teaching of grammar to non-native speakers
Choose a school of your choice and observe the slang used by its students: analyze how it affects their social lives
Attempt a critical overview of racist languages
What does endangered language means and how does it apply in the real world?
A critical overview of your second language and why it is a second language
What are the motivators of speech and why are they relevant?
Analyze the difference between the different types of communications and their significance to specially-abled persons
Give a critical overview of five literature on sign language
Evaluate the distinction between the means of language comprehension between an adult and a teenager
Consider a native American group and evaluate how cultural diversity has influenced their language
Analyze the complexities involved in code-switching and code-mixing
Give a critical overview of the importance of language to a teenager
Attempt a forensic overview of language accessibility and what it means
What do you believe are the means of communications and what are their uniqueness?
Attempt a study of Islamic poetry and its role in language development
Attempt a study on the role of Literature in language development
Evaluate the Influence of metaphors and other literary devices in the depth of each sentence
Identify the role of literary devices in the development of proverbs in any African country
Cognitive Linguistics: analyze two pieces of Literature that offers a critical view of perception
Identify and analyze the complexities in unspoken words
Expression is another kind of language: discuss
Identify the significance of symbols in the evolution of language
Discuss how learning more than a single language promote cross-cultural developments
Analyze how the loss of a mother tongue affect the language Efficiency of a community
Critically examine how sign language works
Using literature from the medieval era, attempt a study of the evolution of language
Identify how wars have led to the reduction in the popularity of a language of your choice across any country of the world
Critically examine five Literature on why accent changes based on environment
What are the forces that compel the comprehension of language in a child
Identify and explain the difference between the listening and speaking skills and their significance in the understanding of language
Give a critical overview of how natural language is processed
Examine the influence of language on culture and vice versa
It is possible to understand a language even without living in that society: discuss
Identify the arguments regarding speech defects
Discuss how the familiarity of language informs the creation of slangs
Explain the significance of religious phrases and sacred languages
Explore the roots and evolution of incantations in Africa

Sociolinguistic Research Topics

You may as well need interesting Linguistics topics based on sociolinguistic purposes for your research. Sociolinguistics is the study and recording of natural speech. It’s primarily the casual status of most informal conversations. You can consider the following Sociolinguistic research topics for your research:

What makes language exceptional to a particular person?
How does language form a unique means of expression to writers?
Examine the kind of speech used in health and emergencies
Analyze the language theory explored by family members during dinner
Evaluate the possible variation of language based on class
Evaluate the language of racism, social tension, and sexism
Discuss how Language promotes social and cultural familiarities
Give an overview of identity and language
Examine why some language speakers enjoy listening to foreigners who speak their native language
Give a forensic analysis of his the language of entertainment is different to the language in professional settings
Give an understanding of how Language changes
Examine the Sociolinguistics of the Caribbeans
Consider an overview of metaphor in France
Explain why the direct translation of written words is incomprehensible in Linguistics
Discuss the use of language in marginalizing a community
Analyze the history of Arabic and the culture that enhanced it
Discuss the growth of French and the influences of other languages
Examine how the English language developed and its interdependence on other languages
Give an overview of cultural diversity and Linguistics in teaching
Challenge the attachment of speech defect with disability of language listening and speaking abilities
Explore the uniqueness of language between siblings
Explore the means of making requests between a teenager and his parents
Observe and comment on how students relate with their teachers through language
Observe and comment on the communication of strategy of parents and teachers
Examine the connection of understanding first language with academic excellence

Language Research Topics

Numerous languages exist in different societies. This is why you may seek to understand the motivations behind language through these Linguistics project ideas. You can consider the following interesting Linguistics topics and their application to language:

What does language shift mean?
Discuss the stages of English language development?
Examine the position of ambiguity in a romantic Language of your choice
Why are some languages called romantic languages?
Observe the strategies of persuasion through Language
Discuss the connection between symbols and words
Identify the language of political speeches
Discuss the effectiveness of language in an indigenous cultural revolution
Trace the motivators for spoken language
What does language acquisition mean to you?
Examine three pieces of literature on language translation and its role in multilingual accessibility
Identify the science involved in language reception
Interrogate with the context of language disorders
Examine how psychotherapy applies to victims of language disorders
Study the growth of Hindi despite colonialism
Critically appraise the term, language erasure
Examine how colonialism and war is responsible for the loss of language
Give an overview of the difference between sounds and letters and how they apply to the German language
Explain why the placement of verb and preposition is different in German and English languages
Choose two languages of your choice and examine their historical relationship
Discuss the strategies employed by people while learning new languages
Discuss the role of all the figures of speech in the advancement of language
Analyze the complexities of autism and its victims
Offer a linguist approach to language uniqueness between a Down Syndrome child and an autist
Express dance as a language
Express music as a language
Express language as a form of language
Evaluate the role of cultural diversity in the decline of languages in South Africa
Discuss the development of the Greek language
Critically review two literary texts, one from the medieval era and another published a decade ago, and examine the language shifts

Linguistics Essay Topics

You may also need Linguistics research topics for your Linguistics essays. As a linguist in the making, these can help you consider controversies in Linguistics as a discipline and address them through your study. You can consider:

The connection of sociolinguistics in comprehending interests in multilingualism
Write on your belief of how language encourages sexism
What do you understand about the differences between British and American English?
Discuss how slangs grew and how they started
Consider how age leads to loss of language
Review how language is used in formal and informal conversation
Discuss what you understand by polite language
Discuss what you know by hate language
Evaluate how language has remained flexible throughout history
Mimicking a teacher is a form of exercising hate Language: discuss
Body Language and verbal speech are different things: discuss
Language can be exploitative: discuss
Do you think language is responsible for inciting aggression against the state?
Can you justify the structural representation of any symbol of your choice?
Religious symbols are not ordinary Language: what are your perspective on day-to-day languages and sacred ones?
Consider the usage of language by an English man and someone of another culture
Discuss the essence of code-mixing and code-switching
Attempt a psychological assessment on the role of language in academic development
How does language pose a challenge to studying?
Choose a multicultural society of your choice and explain the problem they face
What forms does Language use in expression?
Identify the reasons behind unspoken words and actions
Why do universal languages exist as a means of easy communication?
Examine the role of the English language in the world
Examine the role of Arabic in the world
Examine the role of romantic languages in the world
Evaluate the significance of each teaching Resources in a language classroom
Consider an assessment of language analysis
Why do people comprehend beyond what is written or expressed?
What is the impact of hate speech on a woman?
Do you believe that grammatical errors are how everyone’s comprehension of language is determined?
Observe the Influence of technology in language learning and development
Which parts of the body are responsible for understanding new languages
How has language informed development?
Would you say language has improved human relations or worsened it considering it as a tool for violence?
Would you say language in a black populous state is different from its social culture in white populous states?
Give an overview of the English language in Nigeria
Give an overview of the English language in Uganda
Give an overview of the English language in India
Give an overview of Russian in Europe
Give a conceptual analysis on stress and how it works
Consider the means of vocabulary development and its role in cultural relationships
Examine the effects of Linguistics in language
Present your understanding of sign language
What do you understand about descriptive language and prescriptive Language?

List of Research Topics in English Language

You may need English research topics for your next research. These are topics that are socially crafted for you as a student of language in any institution. You can consider the following for in-depth analysis:

Examine the travail of women in any feminist text of your choice
Examine the movement of feminist literature in the Industrial period
Give an overview of five Gothic literature and what you understand from them
Examine rock music and how it emerged as a genre
Evaluate the cultural association with Nina Simone’s music
What is the relevance of Shakespeare in English literature?
How has literature promoted the English language?
Identify the effect of spelling errors in the academic performance of students in an institution of your choice
Critically survey a university and give rationalize the literary texts offered as Significant
Examine the use of feminist literature in advancing the course against patriarchy
Give an overview of the themes in William Shakespeare’s “Julius Caesar”
Express the significance of Ernest Hemingway’s diction in contemporary literature
Examine the predominant devices in the works of William Shakespeare
Explain the predominant devices in the works of Christopher Marlowe
Charles Dickens and his works: express the dominating themes in his Literature
Why is Literature described as the mirror of society?
Examine the issues of feminism in Sefi Atta’s “Everything Good Will Come” and Bernadine Evaristos’s “Girl, Woman, Other”
Give an overview of the stylistics employed in the writing of “Girl, Woman, Other” by Bernadine Evaristo
Describe the language of advertisement in social media and newspapers
Describe what poetic Language means
Examine the use of code-switching and code-mixing on Mexican Americans
Examine the use of code-switching and code-mixing in Indian Americans
Discuss the influence of George Orwell’s “Animal Farm” on satirical literature
Examine the Linguistics features of “Native Son” by Richard Wright
What is the role of indigenous literature in promoting cultural identities
How has literature informed cultural consciousness?
Analyze five literature on semantics and their Influence on the study
Assess the role of grammar in day to day communications
Observe the role of multidisciplinary approaches in understanding the English language
What does stylistics mean while analyzing medieval literary texts?
Analyze the views of philosophers on language, society, and culture

English Research Paper Topics for College Students

For your college work, you may need to undergo a study of any phenomenon in the world. Note that they could be Linguistics essay topics or mainly a research study of an idea of your choice. Thus, you can choose your research ideas from any of the following:

The concept of fairness in a democratic Government
The capacity of a leader isn’t in his or her academic degrees
The concept of discrimination in education
The theory of discrimination in Islamic states
The idea of school policing
A study on grade inflation and its consequences
A study of taxation and Its importance to the economy from a citizen’s perspectives
A study on how eloquence lead to discrimination amongst high school students
A study of the influence of the music industry in teens
An Evaluation of pornography and its impacts on College students
A descriptive study of how the FBI works according to Hollywood
A critical consideration of the cons and pros of vaccination
The health effect of sleep disorders
An overview of three literary texts across three genres of Literature and how they connect to you
A critical overview of “King Oedipus”: the role of the supernatural in day to day life
Examine the novel “12 Years a Slave” as a reflection of servitude and brutality exerted by white slave owners
Rationalize the emergence of racist Literature with concrete examples
A study of the limits of literature in accessing rural readers
Analyze the perspectives of modern authors on the Influence of medieval Literature on their craft
What do you understand by the mortality of a literary text?
A study of controversial Literature and its role in shaping the discussion
A critical overview of three literary texts that dealt with domestic abuse and their role in changing the narratives about domestic violence
Choose three contemporary poets and analyze the themes of their works
Do you believe that contemporary American literature is the repetition of unnecessary themes already treated in the past?
A study of the evolution of Literature and its styles
The use of sexual innuendos in literature
The use of sexist languages in literature and its effect on the public
The disaster associated with media reports of fake news
Conduct a study on how language is used as a tool for manipulation
Attempt a criticism of a controversial Literary text and why it shouldn’t be studied or sold in the first place

Finding Linguistics Hard To Write About?

With these topics, you can commence your research with ease. However, if you need professional writing help for any part of the research, you can scout here online for the best research paper writing service.

There are several expert writers on ENL hosted on our website that you can consider for a fast response on your research study at a cheap price.

As students, you may be unable to cover every part of your research on your own. This inability is the reason you should consider expert writers for custom research topics in Linguistics approved by your professor for high grades.

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100+ Linguistic Topics for Excellent Research Papers

13 December, 2021

12 minutes read

Author: Donna Moores

Linguistics is an English language category that deals with logical dialectal analysis and interpretation. It seeks to reveal the form, meaning, and context of language. While most college students may perceive linguistics as a simple subject, it is pretty complex. English tutors might issue topics in linguistics in various disciplines like phonology or semantics, which leaves many learners grappling to tackle the research papers.

When analyzing language, you should write a paper that clarifies the nature, classification, and proper identification tools. Therefore, your linguistics topics must be relevant and within the research purpose. It is essential to pick an appropriate topic to allow the audience to understand the fundamental research.

With numerous dialects across the globe, identifying a worthy topic should be a simple task. We have compiled lists of engaging topic ideas to help you craft an outstanding research paper and inspire your academic projects.

Linguistics Research Paper: Definition, Explanation, Examples

Any linguistics paper should comprise an in-depth analysis of language development and acquisition. The subject explores various aspects of different dialects and their meanings. It also covers style and form to develop comprehensive arguments under various contexts.

That is why English professors test students with various academic projects to measure their comprehension levels. Thus, learners should ensure they select good linguistics research paper topics. Here is an overview example of the paper structure.

Introduction

Background information.
Hypothesis.
Literature review.

Methodology

Data sources.
Data organization.
Analysis/Findings.
Paraphrase hypothesis.
Significance of the study.
Recommendations.

Therefore, ensure your paper meets the specified academic standards. You must read the requirements keenly to craft an outstanding paper that meets the tutor’s expectations. If you encounter challenges, you can research further online or seek clarification from your professor to know how you will approach the research question.

Choosing A Good Linguistic Topic Isn’t Hard – Here’s How To Do It

Struggling to pick a relevant topic for your research paper? Fret not. We will help you understand the steps to identify an appropriate topic. Most students often underestimate the significance of the pre-writing stages, which entails topic selection. It is a vital phase where you need to choose relevant linguistics topics for your research paper. Hence, ensure you read the research question carefully to understand its requirements.

Carry out an extensive brainstorming session to identify relatable themes within the subject area. Avoid selecting a broad theme, but if you do, break it into minor sub-topics. This will help you during the research phase to get adequate information. Use different websites to get verifiable academic sources and published papers from reputable scholars.

Don’t forget to make your linguistics research paper topics catchy and exciting to capture your readers’ attention. No one wants to read a dull paper.

Finally, follow all the academic requirements for research paper writing – proper grammar, style, correct citation, etc. College tutors often award well-written, original papers.

However, if you still find it challenging to move beyond topic selection, you can reach out to one of our subject-oriented experts for assistance.

We are here to offer the following:

Quality-approved papers.
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Therefore, do not endure the academic pressure alone. Talk to us we will help you select unique linguistic research topics.

15 Interesting Sociolinguistics Topic Ideas

Need help with your sociolinguistics research paper? Here are interesting topics in linguistics to jumpstart your writing.

An in-depth theoretical analysis of language development.
Explore dialect as a communication tool.
How brain injuries influence language and speech.
Language is a symbolic system: Discuss.
Examine the different linguistic disorders and challenges.
The impact of mother tongue on effective communication.
The importance of learning more than one dialect.
Evaluate mother tongue pronunciation and language fluency.
Compare and contrast the English and French languages.
Why do people communicate in different languages?
The role of Greek philosophers in language formation.
Language origination as an unfathomable issue.
Discuss language as a national identity in a multicultural nation.
Is there a difference between adult and child language acquisition?
Discuss the challenges in language development.

15 Good Applied Linguistics Topics

Applied linguistics is an essential discipline that allows learners to comprehend effective communication. Below are interesting linguistics topics to help you during writing.

What is applied linguistics?
Evaluate applied linguistics in a technological environment.
Discuss the intricacies of spoken and written language.
Explore bilingualism and multilingualism.
An analysis of communication barriers in delivering health services.
The influence of identity in a multicultural society.
Discuss dialect barriers in social media networks.
An in-depth analysis of hate speech.
The importance of applied linguistics development.
The adverse effects of social media on effective communication.
The impact of culture on multilingualism.
An in-depth evaluation of applied linguistics.
The influence of politics on linguistic media.
An analysis of practical research methods on linguistics.
How bilingualism enhances human personality.

15 Computational Linguistics Research Paper Topics

Computational linguistics involves technology in translation and other language-enhancing tools. Below are compelling linguistics thesis topics for your research compositions.

What is computational linguistics?
The impact of technology in speech recognition.
The evolution of the translation industry in enhancing communication.
Does translation cause communication barriers?
An analysis of audiovisual translation.
Discuss the effectiveness of supervised learning.
An analysis of effective programs for phonetic comparison of dialects.
Speech recognition: description of dialect performance.
An analysis of linguistic dimensions using technology.
Effective methods of text extraction.
Discuss the reasons for learning computational linguistics.
The influence of modern communication on computational linguistics.
Discuss the different approaches to effective learning.
An analysis of speech synthesis.
Discuss the benefits of machine translation.

15 Engaging Comparative Linguistics Research Paper Topics

Looking for winning research topics in linguistics? Search no more. Here are impressive comparative topic ideas for your research compositions:

Compare and contrast English and Latin.
A comparative study of speech physiology and anatomy.
An evaluation of the Ape language.
What is folk speech?
An analysis of historical linguistics.
An in-depth study of ethnographic semantics.
The connection between culture and linguistics.
A comparative analysis of phonetics in linguistics.
The influence of computers on dialect development.
Analyze communication in a paralinguistic dialect.
English popularity: A comparative study of the world.
Does accent fluency boost effective communication?
Neologism: An analysis of UK English.
Discuss the idioms of Australian English compared to American.
A comparative study of the Anglo-Saxon dialects.

15 Interesting Historical Linguistics Topic Ideas

Let us explore historical linguistics essay topics that will translate into remarkable papers with impressive literary arguments.

Discuss the significance of the Greek philosophers in language development.
An analysis of the preserved cuneiform writings.
Evaluate the origin of language theories.
Discuss the history of language in mythology.
An analysis of language translation.
A critical analysis of language development.
How speech impacts human interaction.
An analysis of modern communication evolution.
Discuss the history of written communication.
Analyze the different linguistics theories.
Why some dialects are challenging to learn.
What is structuralism in linguistics?
The effectiveness of mother tongue in linguistics.
The ancient relationship between French and English.
Is English considered indigenous?

15 Compelling Stylistics Linguistics Research Paper Topics

The following are interesting linguistics topics to help in crafting unique research papers. Peruse and pick one that suits your paper’s requirements.

Analyze the stylistic features of a business letter.
A comparative study of newspaper advertisement style.
An analysis of public speeches style
The forms and function of legal documents.
Discuss the functions of different newspaper genres.
The influence of ethnicity on linguistics.
Explore the effectiveness of spoken vs. written communication.
How effective is language translation?
Persuasive linguistics: An analysis of different strategies in politics.
The pros and cons of colonialism and the effects on African languages.
Discuss practical strategies for language acquisition.
Evaluate the social factors impacting language variation.
Discuss the various attitudes in society to language.
The impact of language on cultural identity.
The role of linguistics in different communities.

Having Problems with Your Paper? Our Experts Are Available 24/7

Research paper writing requires dedication in terms of time and effort. Most learners get stuck because of a lack of time and complex topics to handle. But with the correct strategy, you can simplify the entire composition. Let us look at some of the tips and tricks to help you compose an exceptional paper.

Read the essay prompt carefully

Take adequate time to acquaint yourself with the research prompt. What does your tutor expect from you? Read the assignment carefully before moving ahead with the research writing.

Choose a topic

Identify an appropriate topic through an extensive brainstorming exercise. It is pretty simple once you have the required themes in place.

Conduct comprehensive research

Carry out intense research on the topic you have selecting taking careful consideration about the relevant information. Use multiple trusted sources to extract adequate research content regarding the theme.

Develop a thesis

Organize your research and develop a powerful thesis statement. It gives your target audience an idea of the paper’s direction.

Design an outline

As per your paper requirements, design an appropriate outline that captures your entire research logically. Include an introduction, main body, and conclusion.

Writing process

Finally, start writing and make sure your arguments flow logically and clearly without any vague explanation in each paragraph.

Thorough editing and proofreading

Edit your work thoroughly and proofread for errors. Make sure it follows all the academic standard rules before turning in the paper to your tutor.

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130+ Original Linguistics Research Topics: Ideas To Focus On

Linguistics is an exciting course to learn. Unfortunately, writing a research paper or essay or write my thesis in linguistics is not as easy. Many students struggle to find a good research topic to write about. Finding a good research topic is crucial because it is the foundation of your paper. It will guide your research and dictate what you write.

Creative Language Research Topics

Argumentative research titles about language, english language research topics for stem students, social media research topics about language, the best quantitative research topics about language, more creative sociolinguistics research topics, research topics in english language education for students, top thesis topics in language, creative language and gender research topics, language education research topics on social issues, research title about language acquisition.

Most students turn to the internet to find research paper topics. Sadly, most sources provide unoriginal and basic topics. For this reason, this article provides some creative sample research topics for English majors.

Linguistics is a fascinating subject with so many research topic options. Check out the following creative research topics in language

How you can use linguistic patterns to locate migration paths
Computers and their effect on language creation
The internet and its impacts on modern language
Has text messages helped create a new linguistic culture?
Language and change; how social changes influence language development
How language changes over time
How effective is non-verbal communication in communicating emotions?
Verbal communication and emotional displays: what is the link?
The negative power of language in internet interactions
How words change as society develops
Is the evolution of languages a scientific concept?
Role of technology in linguistics

Argumentative essay topics should state your view on a subject so you can create content to defend the view and convince others that it is logical and well-researched. Here are some excellent language research titles examples

Society alters words and their meanings over time
Children have a better grasp of new language and speech than adults
Childhood is the perfect time to develop speech
Individuals can communicate without a shared language
Learning more than one language as a child can benefit individuals in adulthood
Elementary schools should teach students a second language
Language acquisition changes at different growth stages
The impact of technology on linguistics
Language has significant power to capitalize on emotions
The proper use of language can have positive impacts on society

Research topics for STEM students do not differ much from those for college and high school students. However, they are slightly more targeted. Find an excellent research title about language for your paper below:

How does language promote gender differences?
Music and language evolution: the correlation
Slang: development and evolution in different cultures
Can language create bonds among cross-cultural societies?
Formal vs informal language: what are the differences?
Age and pronunciation: what is the correlation?
How languages vary across STEM subjects
Are STEM students less proficient in languages?
The use of language in the legal sector
The importance of non-verbal communication and body language
How politeness is perceived through language choices and use
The evolution of English through history

Did you know you can find excellent social media research topics if you do it right? Check out the following social media language research titles:

The role of the internet in promoting language acquisition
A look at changes in languages since social media gained traction
How social media brings new language
How effective are language apps in teaching foreign languages?
The popularity of language applications among learners
A study of the impact of the internet on the spreading of slang
Social media as a tool for promoting hate language
Free speech vs hate speech: what is the difference?
How social media platforms can combat hate language propagation
How can social media users express emotions through written language?
Political censorship and its impact on the linguistics applied in the media
The differences between social media and real-life languages

A language research title can be the foundation of your quantitative research. Find some of the best examples of research topics for English majors here:

Language barriers in the healthcare sector
What percentage of kids below five struggle with languages?
Understanding the increase in multilingual people
Language barriers and their impact on effective communication
Social media and language: are language barriers existent in social media?
Bilingualism affects people’s personalities and temperaments
Can non-native teachers effectively teach local students the English language?
Bilingualism and its impact on social perceptions
The new generative grammar concept: an in-depth analysis
Racist language: its history and impacts
A look into examples of endangered languages
Attitudes toward a language and how it can impact language acquisition

You can choose a research topic about language based on social issues, science concerns like biochemistry topics , and much more. Sociolinguistics is the study of the correlation between language and society and the application of language in various social situations. Here are some excellent research topics in sociolinguistics:

An analysis of how sociolinguistics can help people understand multi-lingual language choices
An analysis of sociolinguistics through America’s color and race background
The role of sociolinguistics in children development
Comparing sociolinguistics and psycholinguistics
Sociolinguistics and gender empowerment: an analysis of their correlation
How media houses use sociolinguistics to create bias and gain a competitive advantage
The value of sociolinguistics education in the teaching of discipline
The role played by sociolinguistics in creating social change throughout history
Research methods used in sociolinguistics
Different sociolinguistics and their role in English evolution
Sociolinguistics: an in-depth analysis
What is sociolinguistics, and what is its role in language evolution?

A good research topic in English will serve as the guiding point for your research paper. Find a suitable research topic for English majors below:

Types of indigenous languages
Language s an essential element of human life
Language as the primary communication medium
The value of language in society
The negative side of coded language
School curriculums and how they influence languages
Linguistics: a forensic language
Elements that influence people’s ability to learn a new language
The development of the English language
How the English language borrows from other languages
Multilingualism: an insight
The correlation between metaphors and similes

Many students struggle to find good thesis topics in language and linguistics. As you read more on the thesis statement about social media , make sure you also understand every thesis title about language from the following examples:

The classification of human languages
The application of different tools in language identification
The role of linguists in language identification
The contributions of Greek philosophers to language development
The origin of language: early speculations
The history of language through the scope of mythology
Theories that explain the origin and development of language
Is language the most effective form of communication
The impact of brain injuries on language
Language impacts on sports
Linguistics intervention that won’t work in this century
Language as a system of symbols

Just like economic research paper topics , gender and language topics do not have to stick to the norms or the standards by which all students write. You can exercise some creativity when creating your topic. Discover a topic about language and gender from this list:

Language and gender: what is the correlation?
How different genders perceive language
Does a kid’s gender influence their grasp of languages?
Men vs Women: a statistical overview of their multilingual prowess.
The perception of language from the female standpoint
The difference between female and male language use
The use of language as a tool for connection between females and males
Does gender have an impact on efficient communication
Does gender impact word choices in conversations?
Females have an easier time learning two or more languages
What makes female and male language choices differ?
Are females better at communicating using spoken language?

There are many social issues related to language education that you can cover in your research paper. Check out the following topics about language related to social issues research topics for your research:

Language translation: what makes it possible
How does the mother tongue influence pronunciation?
Issues that encourage people to learn different languages
Sign language: origin and more
Role of language in solving conflicts
Language and mental health: a vivid analysis
The similarities between English and French languages
Language disorders: an overview
Common barriers to language acquisition
The impact of mother tongue on effective communication
Reasons you should learn two or more languages
The benefits of multilingualism in the corporate world
Language and identity: what is the correlation?

Language acquisition is the process by which people gain the ability to understand and produce language. Like anatomy research paper topics , language acquisition is a great area to focus your linguistics research. Here are some research questions that bring the focus of the study of linguistic and language acquisition:

Language acquisition: an overview
What attitudes do people have about language acquisition
How attitude can impact language acquisition
The evolution of language acquisition over time
Language and ethnicity: their correlation
Do native English speakers have an easier time acquiring new languages?
A case study on political language
Why is language acquisition a key factor in leadership
Language acquisition and mother tongue pronunciation: the link
Ambiguity as a barrier to language acquisition
How words acquire their meanings

While a good topic can help capture the reader and create a good impression, it is insufficient to earn you excellent grades. You also need quality content for your paper to get perfect grades. However, creating a high-quality research paper takes time, effort, and skill, which most students do not have.

For these reasons, we offer quality research paper writing services for all students. We guarantee quality papers, timely deliveries, and originality. Reach out to our writers for top linguistics research papers today!

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100 best linguistic research topics.

November 26, 2020

Some learners struggle to choose linguistic research topics to research and write about. That’s because linguistics is interesting to learn about yet challenging to write papers and essays about. Some students stay up at night learning about phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and semantics. Unfortunately, they still struggle to write quality papers and essays on linguistic topics in these areas. If looking for ideas to form the basis of your paper or essay, here is a list of research topics in linguistics to consider.

Linguistic Research Topics in Discourse Studies

Discourse studies provide fascinating details about individuals, culture, technology, movements, and changes that take place over time. If looking for linguistics topics that relate to discourse studies, here are some of the best ideas to consider. You can also check out our communication research topics .

Childhood is the time when speech is made or broken
Cultivation of politicians’ buzzword through linguistic analysis
How linguistic patterns are sued to locate migration paths
How computers affect modern language negatively
How text messaging has created a new linguistic subculture
How the brain works when it comes to learning a new language
How words change over time
How effective is non-verbal communication when it comes to displaying emotions?
How effective is verbal communication when it comes to displaying feelings?
How society alters words and their meanings
How the negative power of a word be reduced by neuro-linguistic programming for trauma victims
Is verbal communication more effective than non-verbal communication?
How individuals communicate without a shared language
How beneficial is learning more than one language during childhood?
Why should Elementary School teach students a second language?
Explain the acquisition of a language at different growth stages
How global leaders use language ethics to change the emotional views of the masses
Explain the power of a language in capitalizing on emotions
How technology alters the communication
How proper use of a language makes a person better in society

A learner should pick a linguistics topic in this category if it piques their interest. That’s because writing a great paper or essay requires a student to explore an idea that they are interested in. Essentially, a learner should research and write about something that they find enjoyable.

Interesting Linguistic Topics for Research

Some topics in linguistics are very interesting to research. These are ideas that most people in society will find enjoyable to read about. Here is a list of the most interesting linguistics topics that students can choose for their papers and essays.

Explain how sociolinguistics help people understand multi-lingual language choices
A study of differences and similarities of Post-Tudor English
How language encourages gender differences
Understanding socio-linguistics via color and race background in America
Vowel pronunciation in the UK- A systematic review
The role of music in language evolution
Explain the development and evolution of slangs
A study of the connection between perception and language
How language creates bonds among cross-cultural communities
Language review in informal and formal settings
How age affects English pronunciation
A phonological treatment based review for English-French load words
How sociolinguistics influence gender empowerment
How words can be used to master legal settings
How the media use sociolinguistics to gain a competitive edge and create bias
Exploratory analysis of the impact and importance of body language
Importance of sociolinguistics education in discipline development
How genders perceive politeness via language use
A study of social change through history via sociolinguistics
An evaluation of English evolution via a focus on different sociolinguistics

The vast majority of topics in this category touches on language and society. That’s why papers and essays about these linguistic research topics will most likely impress many readers.

Applied Linguistics Research Paper Topics

Applied linguistics focus on finding meaningful language solutions to real-world issues. Some of the best linguistic paper topics to consider in this category include the following.

The beauty idea and its expression verbally
A detailed evaluation of hate language
What are the key determinants of hate language propagation?
A literature-based review that explores eye-tracking technology and its implication for applied linguistics advancement
A detailed evaluation of research methods for applied linguistics
How relevant is the development of applied linguistics?
Discuss the impacts of the language used in social media on the current generation
An essay on the impact of using proper linguistic communication in social media
Are applied linguistics relevant in the current digitalized world?
How political oppression affect the linguistic used in the media
How important is applied linguistics vocationally?
The major differences between spoken and written language via linguistics evaluation
Is multilingualism a possibility that follows bilingualism?
What is the contribution of a language to national identity within a multicultural society?
How effective is healthcare delivery when there are language barriers?
Is the language barrier relevant in social media?
How bilingualism enriches the personality of an individual
Discuss language cognition and perceptions during the learning process
Discuss the learning mechanisms when it comes to a foreign language
Explain how a non-native teacher can teach local students the English language

These can also be great dissertation topics in linguistics. That’s because they require extensive research and analysis of facts to write brilliant papers. So, if struggling to find an idea for your dissertation, consider one of these thesis topics in applied linguistics.

Great Linguistics Essay Topics

Perhaps, you’re looking for a list of English linguistics research topics from which you can get ideal for your essay. In that case, consider these amazing research proposal topics in linguistics.

Discuss the new generative grammar concept
Analysis of pragmatics and semantics in two texts
Identity analysis in racist language
Do humans have a predisposition to learn a language?
English assessment as a second language
Endangered languages and language death causes
Attitudes towards a language and childhood language acquisition
Mixing modern language and code-switching
Linguistic turn and cognitive turn
What is computational linguistics?
Linguistic and cultural diversity as an educational issue
Differences between adults and childhood language learning
Factors that affect the ability to learn a language
A forensic assessment of linguistics
Lexical and grammatical changes
How important is a language?
What are the effects of language on human behavior?
English or indigenous languages?
Is language an essential element of human life?
Is language the primary communication medium?

These can be great topics for short essays. However, they can also be PhD thesis topics in linguistics where learners will have to conduct extensive and detailed research. The most important thing is to gather relevant and new information that will interest the readers.

Research Topics in Cognitive Linguistics

Students that want to explore questions in cognitive linguistics should consider topics in this category. Here are some of the most interesting topics in linguistics for research papers that also touch on cognition. If these ideas seem a bit complicated, use our writing services .

How grammatical phrasing affects compliance with prescriptions, prohibitions, or suggestions
Latest research findings into cognitive literacy in Indian English poetry
Conceptual metaphor: Does the activation of a single-source domain activates the multiple target concepts?
Multilingualism: Does L2 modulate L1/L2 organization in the brain?
Can task-based language teaching perception be measured?
Are there prominent cognitive-linguistic books for students?
What role does cognitive linguistics play in the acquisition of a second language?
Is word meaning a concept that is advocated for by some scholars?
Which linguistic experiments can be used to understand how the right and left hemispheres work?
Discuss the relationship between metaphors and similes

Computational Linguistics Research Topics

Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field that deals with rule-based or statistical modeling of the natural language from the computational perspectives. Here are some of the best topics for research in this field.

Using supervised learning to analyze Medieval German poetry
Which computer-assisted program is best for phonetic comparison of different dialects and why?
How and where can Danish verbs be extracted?
Can computational linguistic suggest an intra-lingual contrastive corpus analysis?
Where can the Schizophrenia text dataset be found?
Discuss the techniques used for meaning or semantic representation in the natural language processing
Describe performance measures for speech recognition
How to extract the introduction, development, and conclusion of a text
Discuss the addition of matrices in a dictionary in python
Explain the definition and characterization of linguistic dimensions in a multidimensional analysis

Students that are struggling to choose what to write about can pick any topic in this list that they find interesting, research, and write about it. Taking the time to research extensively and write quality papers or essays is what will earn learners their desired grades.

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55 Top-Rated Research Topics in Linguistics For an A+

The field of linguistics is one of the easiest yet challenging subjects for college and university students. Areas such as phonology, phonetics, syntax, morphology, and semantics in linguistics can keep you up all night.

That is why we came up with these quality language research topics.

What are the Linguistics Research Topics?

To understand this better, we’d have first to define the term linguistics.

Language in context ,
Language form, and
Language meaning.

The researcher will have to determine the interplay between sound and meaning when presented with this subject. A linguistics research paper will, therefore, deal with the following:

The nature of language
How human languages are classified
Tools used in language identification

Language entices researchers as it draws significant and sustained attention with the reader. With the numerous languages in the world now, you cannot miss finding an area or two to write on this topic.

However, we endeavor to make this task quick and easy for you by shooting up 55 research topics in linguistics.

How To Write Linguistic Topics For Your Dissertation

Are you having trouble coming up with a research topic for your research paper? Here are the top expert recommendations:

Brainstorm ideas on your own and with your friends
Pick a broad topic and free-write specific sub-topics on it
Get inspiration from other available linguistics research paper topics

After coming up with a topic that interests you, check to ensure that it meets your assignment criteria.

So let’s get started!

History of Language Research Topics

The contribution of Greek philosophers to language
Significance of the over 30,000 preserved cuneiform writings to language
Early speculations about the origin of language
The long history of language as rooted in mythology
Why the origin of language is an unanswerable problem
A critical analysis of theories that explain the origin and development of language

Argumentative College Linguistic Research Topics

Is language the only way we can use to communicate?
Does a brain injury have an impact on language?
Should we refer to the language as a mere system of symbols?
Do language disorders make it a difficult subject to study?
Does the mother tongue have an impact on efficient communication?
Should we learn two or more languages?

Linguistics Research Topics – Tough Questions

Why is there a similarity among many English and French words?
What makes people speak different languages?
Why does the mother tongue always interfere with one’s pronunciation?
What makes it possible for language translation?
Is sign language only a matter of making signs with the hands?
Why are some languages difficult to learn than others?

Sociolinguistic Research Topics

Social factors that necessitate language variation and varieties
What are the attitudes to language among different societies?
The relationship between language and identity
A critical evaluation of language and ethnicity
Analyzing language attrition among most English speakers
Distinct functions of language among different communities

Interesting Topics in Linguistics

Salient factors that contribute to language shift and death
Why nobody can claim to know a certain language in its entirety
Why is written communication more precise than spoken one?
Problems of ambiguity during language translation
Does language influence society, or vice versa, is it true?
The effectiveness of language support and subject teaching

Linguistics Paper Topics on Politics

Persuasive language strategies and techniques in political speeches
Why politicians use culturally used languages when addressing indigenous communities?
The place of colonial rule in African politics
A case study of effective political communication
Understanding the changing landscape of political communication
The use of buzz words and tag lines in political speeches

Linguistics Research Paper Topics on Semantics

How does meaning work in language analysis and interpretation?
How can the meanings of words relate to each other?
Ways in which sentences are related to one another
What causes ambiguity to arise in language?
How do different speakers acquire a sense of meaning?
A critical analysis of language use and language acquisition

Linguistic Topics on Translation

The role of the latest technologies in the translation industry
Is the translator training and pedagogy producing efficient translators?
Are translations the cause of misunderstanding between different languages?
What is the effectiveness of audiovisual translation?
Is literary translation causing more harm than good in communication?
What is the relationship between translation and popular culture?

Interesting Linguistics Topics on Language Disorders

Causes of receptive language disorders among children
Mental formation of language disorders during a child’s development
Symptoms of language disorder and how to deal with them
What is the effectiveness of psychotherapy in dealing with language disorders?
Why is autism spectrum disorder common among most children?
What causes problems with the sentence and word flow?
Why children of 1 and 2 years of age have trouble with p, b, m, h, and w sounds

For top grades, aim for a specific and original linguistic topic. If the task seems daunting and tedious to you, then professional thesis writing help is all you need. The service is available at cheap rates with guaranteed top quality.

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Top 50+ linguistics research topics for your paper.

Are you a student or a graduate of linguistics? If yes, there is no doubting the fact that research topics in linguistics are your bread and butter. You can escape them in school. Write within the confines of the topics in linguistics and get your grade without stress. However, linguistics is a wide field and it can be hard to pick one of the many linguistic topics for your research. Sometimes, the problem is not in picking a topic. The problem is that despite the wide scope of linguistics, you don’t know how to form linguistics research topics.

We noticed these problems with students and decided to help. Our solution is to compile a list of 50 linguistic research topics for linguistics students. These topics could form the basis of your linguistics research paper topics. You don’t have to worry anymore about topics for master thesis in linguistics. We have you covered for all English linguistics research topics. Let’s dive in!

Check Our 50 Linguistics Research Topics

There are linguistics research topics in abundance. If you search online, you would find more than a few examples. However, you need to know the aspect of linguistics you want to use for your linguistics paper topics. It would make no sense to have a list of thesis topics in applied linguistics and want to write on topics in cognitive linguistics. While they are all under the broad body of linguistics, they are quite different from each other.

So, the first step in finding the perfect linguistics essay topics is to choose the aspect of linguistics you want. After you have made a choice you can now look into linguistics topics in that aspect. We have made finding interesting linguistics topics in any aspect you chose easier by grouping our 50 linguistics research topics. All you have to do is search under the aspect of your choice.

Interesting Linguistics Research Topics

If you don’t only want to write a research paper but you want to find every minute of it intriguing, these interesting topics in linguistics are the ones for you.

What makes written communication more precise compared to spoken communication?
How to spot language disorders and deal with them
What contributes to the prevalent language shift and death in our society today?
The language of feminism: How formalized is it and how does it affect society?
Why is it impossible to claim to know a language entirely?
What salient factors cause ambiguity in language translation?
An in-depth analysis of feminism in Africa
Language vs Society: Which one influences the other? How does it affect the members?
How effective are subject teaching and language support?
What factors affect language choice in multilingual societies? (Study of selected communities)
The real functions of language

Linguistics Topics on Translation

If you want the latest research topics in applied linguistics, the topics under the following subheadings would help you. You just have to look for the aspect that you have an interest in and look at linguistics in that light.

How has technology affected translation at this age and time?
Is translation the cause of misunderstandings between speakers of different languages?
How effective is an audiovisual translation in revolutionizing the translation industry?
Does literal translation do more harm than good?
How has the translator training and pedagogy faired in the production of efficient translators?
How does translation relate to popular culture?

Translation is essential in this century with people of different languages communicating and coming together in a global economy. These topics look into the issues that translation encounter at this time.

Linguistics Topics on Politics

Politics is an ever-present phenomenon in any society. These dissertation topics in linguistics examine the issues surrounding language in the field of politics. We have explained samples of Ph.D. thesis topics in linguistics in this field.

The reality of hate speech in selected communities
The use of persuasive language strategies and tools in political speech
How colonial rule affected African politics and language
Why do politicians use indigenous languages to address communities?
A critical analysis of the changing political communication landscape
Effective political communication: A case study of selected politicians
How tag lines and buzz words are used to enhance political speeches

Sociolinguistics Research Topics

This aspect of linguistics examines how issues surrounding how language works in society. These research topics for English linguistics focus on how people in society use language and its effects on society.

What are the social factors that necessitate language varieties?
How does language affect identity?
An in-depth analysis of language attrition common to most English speakers
A critical evaluation of the difference in attitudes towards language in different societies
The differences in language functions in selected communities
How ethnicity affect language and vice versa

Argumentative Linguistics Research Topics

These topics in linguistics for research papers argue on issues surrounding language. You can use these topics if you want to show different sides of an argument in your research.

Is language the best way to communicate?
Can we say that language is merely a system of symbols
Do language disorders cause difficulties in the study of language?
Does brain injury lead to issues in language capacities?
Do mother tongue inflection and accent impact efficient communication?
Is it advisable to learn more than one language?

Linguistics Research Topics on History

Language was not a concept that started a few years ago. People have been communicating for centuries and centuries. These topics look at the history of language, sometimes about this age.

How Greek philosophy contributes to language
What are the early speculations scientists had about the origin of language?
Analysis of the history of language as explained in mythology
How do the 3,000 preserved cuneiform writings affect language?
A critical evaluation of different theories on the origin and development of language
Why has the question of language origin remained unanswerable?

Linguistics Research Topics on Semantics

Language is nothing without meaning. These interesting linguistic topics show how meaning and language mix and relate. You can research any one of these topics to understand how this field.

How does meaning affect language analysis and interpretation?
What is the major cause of language ambiguity?
How do sentences relate to one another?
How do speakers of different languages acquire a sense of meaning in conversation?
How can the meaning of words relate?
An in-depth analysis into how language is used and acquired in different communities

Tough Linguistics Research Topics

Do all the topics above seem too easy for you? Do you want something more challenging? We have a few topics for you. These topics would give you that challenge you want. Ensure that you do enough research on topics before you embark on them.

Why do people speak different languages?
What makes language translation possible?
What makes some languages harder to learn than others?
Why are English and French words similar?
Why does the mother tongue always affect pronunciation?
Does sign language only involve the hands?

How to Choose A Perfect Linguistics Topic for You

There are different aspects of linguistics. If you check online, you would find linguistic anthropology research topics, computational linguistics research topics, and much more. However, not all these aspects of linguistics would be perfect for your dissertation or thesis.

In selecting or creating the perfect linguistic topic for you, here are some of the tips from our experts in paper writing you should take into consideration.

Pick an aspect that interest you . Linguistics apply to different walks of life. Therefore, there are varied topics for your linguistics research. It can make choosing a topic quite stressful. What you do is find what interests you and find topics in that aspect. Start by looking for a broad aspect then narrow it down to a part of the field. For instance, you can start with applied linguistics and move on to linguistics in politics.
Brainstorm with friends . After you have chosen the aspect you like, you can pick a list of topics in linguistics for research papers and bounce off ideas from the topics with your friends. You can even write out your ideas from your brainstorming and ask your friends what they think about them. The topic that you notice that you and your friends keep going back to is possibly the best one for you. If you find a lot of things to talk about it, you would possibly find a lot of things to write about it.
Research the topics . Talk is cheap though. If you want to write on a topic, ensure that there are enough materials to support your claims. After you and your friends decide on a topic, research the topic before you start writing. Once you find that there are enough materials, you can start.

Linguistics has different aspects. If you check online and on our list, you would find different topics in these aspects, including topics related to linguistic diversity. Follow our guide and list to find the best linguistic topic for you!

130+ Excellent Linguistics Research Topics and Ideas

Table of Contents

Linguistic courses are not easy to learn. It is one of the challenging subjects that focus on the systematic study of the structure and evolution of language and the ways humans use it. Moreover, the field of linguistics also covers wide areas such as syntax, semantics, phonetics, phonology, and morphology. Since this field is vast, then obviously choosing the best Linguistics Research Topics would also be difficult.

If you want to complete research on any concepts from the field of linguistics, then as a researcher you will have to determine the interplay between sound and meaning. Most importantly, in linguistics, you need to analyze the language form, language in context, and language meaning. The typical linguistics research paper should cover

The language’s nature
Classification of human languages
Tools used in language identification

Linguistics is an interesting course to study, but when it comes to writing a research paper or essay on the concepts related to this subject, it is tedious to complete because it requires a lot of practical approaches for evaluating a linguistic issue or a topic. More than analysis and execution, choosing the right linguistics research or dissertation topic is one of the crucial parts of writing a linguistics research paper.

List of Linguistics Research Topics and Ideas

We know that finding a linguistics research paper topic is difficult. So, in order to make your search process easier, here we have shared the list of top linguistic research topics for you to consider.

History of Language Research Topics

The Greek philosophers’ contribution to language
Early speculations about the origin of various languages
Why is the origin of language an unanswerable problem?
The importance of the over 30,000 preserved cuneiform writings to language
A critical analysis of theories that explain the origin and development of language
The long history of language in mythology
What are the aspects of the origin of the language?
The history of writing
Interpretations of communication
Linguistic theories
The ancient connection between English and French words
How does the mother tongue influence one’s pronunciation?
Why do people speak different languages?
Discovery of language translation
Is sign language only related to making signs with the hands?
The Effect of Language Origin on Humans
Moving from structuralism to post-structuralism
The evolution of modern linguistics
Indigenous or English?
Are we predisposed to learn a language from ancient times?
Contribution of the early Egyptian society in language.
How is the language of a community or society?
How does language differ from gender to gender?
Childhood is when a person’s speech is formed or broken.
Linguistic research is used to cultivate politicians’ buzzwords.
How are linguistic patterns used to track migration routes?
How Computers hurt modern language
Text messaging a contribution to the emergence of a modern linguistic subculture

Argumentative Linguistics Research Topics

Does a brain injury have an impact on language?
Should we learn two or more languages?
Should we refer to language as a mere system of symbols?
Does the mother tongue have an impact on efficient communication?
Do language disorders make it a difficult subject to study?
Does language depict literacy?
Is it necessary to learn English in order to fit in the newly developing societies?
How does the mother tongue affect an individual’s understanding of other languages?
Can verbal language be considered as the only way of communicating?
How important is nonverbal communication in the context of teaching and learning?
How is language translation made possible?
Why is learning Chinese difficult when compared to learning the English language?
Why is English considered an important language to know especially in post-colonized nations?
The impact of language on how men, as well as women, view politeness
Sociolinguistics is a tool for studying social change over time.
An examination of English evolution through the lens of various sociolinguistics
What is called Phonology and Phonetics?
How do Phonology and Phonetics differ from each other?

Read more: Argumentative Essay Topics That You Must Consider

Linguistics Research Topics on Politics

Why do politicians use culturally used languages when addressing indigenous communities?
A case study of effective political communication
Persuasive language strategies and techniques in political speeches
The use of buzzwords and tag lines in political speeches
Understanding the changing landscape of political communication
Why do Hindu politicians use Arabic Kalema’s and other words of significance in Islam when rallying in Islamic societies or communities?
How has colonial rule affected Indian and African politics?

Read more: Political Science Research Topics To Write About

Linguistics Research Topics on Language Disorders

Mental formation of language disorders during a child’s development
Why is autism spectrum disorder common among most children?
Causes of receptive language disorders among children
What is the effectiveness of psychotherapy in dealing with language disorders?
Why do children between 1 and 2 years of age have trouble with p, b, m, h, and w sounds?

Sociolinguistics Research Paper Topics

Attitudes to language among different societies
A critical evaluation of language and ethnicity
Social factors that necessitate language variation and varieties
Analyzing language attrition among the most English speakers
The relationship between language and identity
Describe how sociolinguistics aids people in comprehending multilingual language options.
How does sociolinguistics affect women’s empowerment?
How the media employs sociolinguistics to achieve a competitive advantage as well as prejudice

Linguistics Research Topics on Translation

Is the translator training and pedagogy producing efficient translators?
The role of the latest technologies in the translation industry
Is literary translation causing more harm than good in communication?
Are translations the cause of misunderstandings between different languages?
What is the relationship between translation and popular culture?
How far has audio-visual translation been effective?

Linguistics Research Topics on Semantics

What causes ambiguity to arise in language?
How can the meanings of words relate to each other?
A critical analysis of language use and language acquisition
How do different speakers acquire a sense of meaning?
How does meaning work in language analysis and interpretation?
In which ways do sentences relate to one another?
Describe the relationship between translation and popular culture
Is literary translation causes more harm than good in communication?
Critical analysis of the use and acquisition of foreign language
How culture and linguistic background of a person impact the way he/she acquires a sense of meaning?
Compare and contrast the interpretation of language and scrutinization

Latest Linguistics Research Topics

Is multilingualism a viable option after bilingualism?
The role of music in the evolution of languages
How does a language contribute to national identity in a multicultural society?
Review of applied linguistics research methods
The importance of proper linguistic communication in social media
The effects of Social media language on the Current Generation
Explain the impact of slang in the development of languages
The Role of Language in the Formation of cross-cultural Bonds
What role does applied linguistics play in the workplace?
Does learning English make it easier to integrate into rapidly changing societies?
How does a person’s mother tongue impact their ability to grasp other languages?
Can solely verbal communication be regarded as a form of communication?
Analyze the factors responsible for different spoken languages.
Understanding race and color in relation to sociolinguistics in America.
A thorough investigation into UK vowel pronunciation.
The contribution of music to the development of language.
Describe the development and evolution of slang.
An examination of the connection between language and thought
How well does healthcare delivery work in language barriers?
What role does language play in social media?

Excellent Linguistics Research Ideas

How does being multilingual improve one’s personality?
Dipronounces your expectations and language cognition evolves as you learn.
Discuss the methods of learning when it comes to learning a foreign language.
Give examples of how a non-native English speaker might teach English to local students.
The part language plays in fostering cross-cultural relationships.
Study of language in both academic and informal contexts.
What effect does one’s age have on how one pronounces English?
An examination of English-French load words using phonetic analysis
What impact does sociolinguistics have on women’s emancipation?
The lengthy history of the English-French term relationship
Why do individuals speak various languages?
How does pronunciation differ depending on one’s mother tongue?
How was language translation found?
Is sign language exclusively concerned with making hand motions?

Compelling Linguistics Research Topics

What are the factors affecting the capability of learning a language?
Explain the impact of bilingualism on an individual’s personality.
Discuss the importance of applied linguistics in today’s digital world.
Analyze the challenges in the study of semantic and pragmatic theory.
Explain digitally-mediated collaborative writing for ESL students.
Discuss the laws of language development.
Write about word sense disambiguation.
Explain a semantic typology of gradable predicates.
Perform an analysis of the Schizophrenia text dataset.
Explain the Impact of blogging on learning languages.

Wrapping Up

Out of the various linguistics research paper topics suggested in this blog post, choose any topic matching your interest and craft a detailed thesis with proper supporting evidence. In case, you are not satisfied with the list of ideas recommended here, then without any hesitation contact us. On our platform, we have numerous skilled linguistics assignment helpers to offer help with research paper topic selection, writing, and proofreading according to your needs. Moreover, with the support of our subject matter experts online, you can complete your linguistics research paper in advance of your submission date and elevate your grades. Remember, the academic papers that we compose and dispatch would be plagiarism-free and flawless.

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100+ Compelling Linguistics Research Topics for University Students

Confused while selecting the interesting linguistics research topics to pen down your thoughts on a piece of paper? So, bounce back to this article and pick the best linguistics research paper topics and boost your grades.

Un-layering the essence of teaching-learning methodology demonstrates the development of linguistic theories. Linguistics is a science of language in which fact-finding is done through some rational and systematic study. While digging into the information about the history of linguistics, two perspectives on languages are unveiled: prescriptive and descriptive views.

The linguistic analysis uncovers the following areas: phonetics, phonology, syntax, morphology, semantics, and pragmatics. Furthermore, the scrutinization of linguistics helps you to know about every aspect of languages as well as methods for studying them.

Table of Contents

How To Choose the Right Linguistics Research Topics?

Stress work is the indication of degraded academic performance and lower grades even if we talk about a linguistics research paper. Make your every endeavor effective and energetic by applying the right strategy. Therefore, make the right selection for your academic writing that starts from the interesting topic selection in linguistics.

Moreover, take advantage of research paper help and discuss your concerns with professional writers. As a suggestion, you can choose the right linguistics research topics by keeping the following points in your mind:

Find your interest: Linguistics uncover various aspects of language learning and allow you to expand your mind capabilities. So, try to explore the depth of the subject and find your area of interest. It will make your academic writing more interesting and enthralling.

Brainstorm the ideas: Picking the interesting linguistics topics demands your knowledge and expertise. Therefore, you need to take the advantage of brainstorming and collect various ideas to explore the concept of linguistics.

Perform pensive research : When you are keen to score high marks, you need to have sufficient knowledge. Conduct insightful research and uncover the pensive ideas for your research paper topics in linguistics.

Interesting Topics in Linguistics

Linguistics is the foundation of language knowledge. Linguistics theories indeed are interrelated to learning the English language. When you have to boost your grades, your selection for linguistics research paper topics makes a huge difference. Some of the interesting linguistics research topics are:

Explain the significance of music in the evolution of language.
Does age really impact English pronunciation?
What is the role of sociolinguistics education in creating discipline?
What is the significance of language in creating teaching methodology?
Analysis of verbal and written communication based on language usage.
Is it important to have expertise in several languages?
Explain the issues related to receptive language disorder and its impact on brain development.
How do you correlate sentence-making and word flow in linguistics?
Discuss the comparability between English and French languages.
Factors responsible for different spoken languages.
The impact of slang in the development of languages.
Is text messaging creating a revolutionary subculture in the new linguistic scenario?
How are linguistic patterns helpful in locating migration roadways?
What are factors affecting the capability of learning a language?
Explain the role of language in building a national identity for developing a multicultural society.
Digital Revolution: impact of computers in modern language
A systematic review on vowel pronunciation in the American Schools.
Significance of language in creating cross-cultural communities: A comprehensive review
Elucidate the impact of language on one’s perception.
Textual and Linguistic analysis for housing studies.

Stimulating Research Paper Topics In Sociolinguistics

While seeking linguistics research topics for your assignments or research paper, you may find sociolinguistics interesting to explore. Sociolinguistics demonstrates the impact of language on our society. When you are keen to explore the effect of language in different aspects of society (including cultural values and expectations), you need to do an in-depth analysis of sociolinguistics.

For building a good foundation on sociolinguistics, you can select the following linguistics paper topics:

How would you define linguistic practices in specific communities?
An elaborative approach for code-switching and code-mixing
Explain the impact of dialect on gender.
A correlational study to share the relationship between language, social class, and cognition.
In-depth study of interactional sociolinguistics in the 21st Century.
A comprehensive analysis on accountability and aptness of dialect.
Evaluate the education of language in the U.S.
The role of languages in controlling emotions.
Effectiveness of verbal communication in expressing one’s feelings: A competitive analysis.
A literature review on communication with a precise comparison of verbal and non-verbal communication
Difference between advanced placement (AP) English literature and language.
What is the relationship between language and one’s personality?
A critical analysis on the relation of language and ethnicity.
Describe the attitudes to various languages among societies.
A comprehensive approach on dialect variations in American English-speaking people.
Scrutinize linguistic variation on language loyalty.
Develop a good understanding of sociological variations to languages.
Impact of the generation gap on language usage.
Examine the impact of various factors (social tension, media, racism, and entertainment) on the utilization of languages.
Is there a difference between linguistic practices among men and women?

Also, Read: 150+ Business Research Topics

Interesting Research Topics in Applied Linguistics

Are you looking for linguistics research topics to advance your learning abilities? In such a case, you have to learn about “Applied Linguistics.” It is the branch of linguistics in which one can understand the practical applications of language studies such as speech therapy, language teaching, and more.

In other words, applied linguistics offers solutions to deal with language-related real-life problems. Imperative academic areas where you can find the applications of applied linguistics are psychology, education, sociology, communication research, and anthropology. Some applied linguistics research paper topics:

Discuss the expansion of learning a second language through reading.
Share your learning on the critical period hypothesis for the acquisition of the second language.
Impact of bilingualism on an individual’s personality.
Linguistics evaluation on the difference between written and spoken language.
Describe language cognition and perceptions in a learning process.
Impact of language barriers on healthcare delivery.
Detailed analysis on various methodologies to learn applied linguistics.
Discuss the relationship between empathy and language proficiency in learners of adult language.
Detailed analysis on multilingualism and multiculturalism.
Impact of extended instructions on the use of passive voices, modals, and relative clauses: A critical analysis.
Explain digitally-mediated collaborative writing for ESL students.
How do we evaluate self-efficacy in students who speak low-level English language?
Elucidate the significance of phrasal verbs in creating technical documents.
Expectations of American Students while taking Japanese language classes.
A detailed study on American deaf students in English as a Non-Native Language (ENNL) classes.
How do you understand by modeling music with Grammars?
The cognitive development of expertise as an ESL teacher: An insightful analysis.
Sound Effects: Gender, Age, and Sound symbolism in American English.
Importance of applied linguistics in today’s digital world.

Also, Read: Modern Literature

Interesting Research Topics in Semantics

The study of reference, meaning, and the truth is covered under semantics or semiotics, or semasiology. A comprehensive analysis of semantics reflects the essence of compositional semantics and lexical semantics. The combination of words and their interaction to form larger experiences like sentences comes under compositional semantics. Whereas, the notion of words is shared under lexical semantics.

Some academic disciplines in linguistic semantics are conceptual semantics, cognitive semantics, formal semantics, computational semantics, and more. Linguistic research paper topics on Semantics are as follows:

Examine meaning work in language interpretation and scrutinization
A critical evaluation of language acquisition and language use.
Challenges in the study of semantic and pragmatic theory.
Discuss semantics lessons and paragraph structure in written language.
How do you explain the semantic richness effects in the recognition of visual words?
How richness of semantics affects the processing of a language.
Semantic generation to action-related stimuli: A neuroanatomical evaluation of embodied cognition.
Examine the understanding of blind children for reading phonological and tactual coding in Braille.
Explain a semantic typology of gradable predicates.
A comparison of between blind and sighted children’s memory performance: the reverse-generation effect.
Clinical research for designing medical decision support systems.
Discuss word recognition processes in blind and sighted children.
A corpus-based study on argumentative indicators.
The typology of modality in modern West Iranian languages.
A critical analysis on changes in naming and semantic abilities in different age groups.
Explain the multidimensional semantics of evaluative adverbs.
A comprehensive analysis on procedural meaning: problems and perspectives.
Cross-cultural and cross-linguistic perspectives on figurative language.
Elucidate semantic and pragmatic problems in discourse and dialogue.

Topics For Linguistics Essays

A curiosity of exploring the various concepts in linguistics leads you to work on essays. Projecting your thoughts in writing linguistics essays makes you understand the structure and changes in human languages. In a case, if you are searching for the best topics in linguistics, go through the following list of linguistics essays:

Difference between human language and artificial language.
Classification of writing systems based on various stages of development.
The laws of language development
Culture and language: impact on reflections.
Methodology of reading and writing for children by Albert James.
Significance of phoneme and phonological matters
The complexity of human language: the specific cases of the apes
Explain the development of languages and derivational morphology.
Detailed analysis on language extinction.
Investigate the peculiarities of English-Chinese and Chinese-English translations.
A comprehensive overview on the acquisition of English as a second language by Mid-Eastern students.
Discuss semiology in language analysis.
Impact of blogging on learning languages.
Linguistics: grammar and language teaching.
English Language: Explain its standard and non-standard types.
Discuss speech community as linguistic anthropology.
A systematic review on linguistic diversity in modern culture.
Similarities and differences between language and logic.
What is the impact of language on digital communication?
Listening comprehension: a comparative analysis of the articles.

Computational Linguistics Research Topics

Analysis and synthesis of language and speech using the techniques of computer science share the significance of computational linguistics. This branch of linguistics reflects the study of computational modeling of natural language. It also describes the computational approaches to answering the linguistic questions.

Under computational linguistics, you can explore different concepts such as artificial intelligence, mathematics, computer science, cognitive science, neuroscience, anthropology. More interesting computational linguistics research topics are:

Explain the factors measuring the performance of speech recognition.
Discuss word sense disambiguation.
Detailed analysis on dependency parsing based on graphs and transitions.
A multidimensional analysis on linguistic dimensions
Analyze Medieval German poetry through supervised learning.
Extraction of Danish verbs.
Analysis of Schizophrenia text dataset.
An intra-lingual contrastive corpus analysis based on computational linguistics.
Discuss various methods to introduce, create, and conclude a text.

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144+ Research Topics in Linguistics For Successful Paper

There is a wide variety of research topics in linguistics. You can use these topics in your thesis, essay, dissertation, project, proposal, or assignment. The English language is diverse and needs enough research to get the evolution and the diversity of all its elements. English has been translated to different languages and vice versa due to its widespread reach. When searching for a topic you should consult your professor to get the best guidance. It is not easy to write a research paper for a high grade. So, a re you in need of linguistic essay writing? We are here to help. Our expert writers are proficient in most languages and will help you achieve high grades at school. Not only does it apply to assignments but also all types of essays. We have cheap pricing even with the high-quality work that we offer. Your work will be delivered fast to ensure we meet your deadline. We will choose an interesting topic, do the research and provide professional work for you. We will make the whole process easier for you.

Sociolinguistic Research Topics

Are you looking for a sociolinguistic research topic that will allow you to remain at the top? Sociolinguistic research topics deal with how language affects people socially. These are some of the best:

How do social tension, racism, media, and popular entertainment affect the use of language by people?
Why do certain listeners think of one language as better than the other?
How does language change happen and for what reasons?
The effect of the generation gap on language.
Does social class affect language?
The influence of social media, media, power, and identity on language.
Compare linguistic practices between women and men.
Examine the various attitudes to language.
Analyze the sociological variations to languages.
Examine Bilingual Education and Language Maintenance in the world.
Examine dialect variations in people using British English in the world.
Determine sources of micro temporal clustering in sociolinguistic sequences.
How are the immigrant dialects and language maintenance in Australia?
Examine linguistic variation on language loyalty
Explain the effect of mixing two languages to make a new one.

Interesting Linguistics Topics

These linguistic topics can help you to do research that will provide top grades for you in the university. These are interesting topics that will make you think deeper about various issues related to language. If you are looking to get challenged, these are the best topics to start with.

Examine written versus spoken language.
How does ambiguity occur during language translation?
What are the factors that contribute to language shift and variation?
The effect of language support and teaching.
The best persuasive language techniques and terminologies.
How do sentences relate to each other in language?
Importance of trending technologies on translation.
Influence of language apps on the spread of different language dialects.
The importance of audio-visual translation.
What are the causes of receptive language disorder in different age groups?
Problems related to sentence and word flow.
How does brain development have an impact on language?
The importance of learning more than two languages
How does one’s mother tongue interfere with punctuation
Why are some languages difficult than others?

Linguistics Research Paper Topics

Do you need a linguistic topic that is not controversial? These are some of the best that will provide the best grades in linguistics. They are simple and you can get your research answers fast on the internet and get high grades.

How have text messages created a linguistic subculture?
The influence of computers on modern language.
The effectiveness of non-verbal and verbal communication to displaying emotions.
Is verbal communication more effective than verbal communication?
Communication of individuals without a shared language.
Do you think elementary schools should teach students more than one language?
The acquisition of language in different growth stages.
The influence of technology on communication.
The impact of music in language evolution.
The influence of language on gender differences.
Social change evolution through sociolinguistics.
Analysis of the impact of body language.
How words are used to master legal settings in the world.
Language review in an informal and formal setting.
Detailed evaluation of research methods on linguistics.

Language Research Topics

Searching online for language research topics can be a bit hectic. However, we made that easier for you. These topics are easy to research and workaround.

How does language influence cultural identity?
The impact of language on gender and power.
Does media affect the diversity of language?
How is technology making a positive or negative impact on language?
The influence of offensive language and free speech.
How to differentiate between standard and non-standard English.
The influence of diversity of language in the community.
How does language influence the behavior of people in workplaces?
How can you determine whether someone is talking the truth or lies through language?
How does the use of certain language influence advertising?
What is the relationship between minor and major languages?
The influence of printed communication media on purchasing levels of customers.
The best communication media for different age groups.
The influence of language on interpersonal relations and social interaction.
How do social media and politics affect language?

Linguistics Essay Topics

Finding an ideal topic can be hectic. However, with the right idea in mind, you can never go wrong in linguistics. They are broad and easy to articulate.

What makes it easy for people to differentiate languages and translate?
How does language influence gender differences?
The influence of language on creating bonds between different communities
How does language influence perception and the connection?
The influence of bilingualism on different societies.
The use of English in different professional settings.
Relation between multilingualism and bilingualism.
The factors that affect language learning abilities in society.
Which are the linguistic communication barriers and stereotypes.
The history of linguistic and its internationalization.
Modern linguistic and influence on the evolution of human language.
The pioneers of linguistic and their impact.
The challenge of linguistic and cultural diversity in Education
The relation between class, language, and ideology during the revolution
The methods used in the preservation of linguistic diversity in the world

English Research Topics

English is diverse and getting the right research topics can be a bit hectic. English language is globally spoken and has a great impact on the general society. Hence, here are some English research topics you can start with:

Psychological factors that influence customer purchasing power through language.
How can the genetic link to optimism shape attitudes?
Evaluate how students from wealthier backgrounds score higher on standardized tests.
What impact do mandatory physical education classes have on student’s health?
The strategies for improving low academic performance in the English language.
The impact of the mother tongue on students’ performance in English.
The impact of mother tongue on grammar and sentence structure.
The study of English literature and its impact on language growth.
English common spelling errors.
The importance of supervision in primary education development.
The correlation between the English language and literature.
The effect of truancy on academic performance in students.
Factors affecting language choice in a multilingual society
How can poetry be used as an expression of anger?
Language attitudes among teenagers.

Linguistics Project Ideas

Are you in the university and wondering where you can get the best linguistic project ideas? Finding a topic should not be a hard task. These topics are straightforward and will help you get top grades.

The analysis of the use of sentence stress on college students.
A sociolinguistic analysis of code-switching and code-mixing in educational institutions.
The importance of motivation in the acquisition of phonetic sounds.
The social Language variation about gender.
The influence of language in racism expression.
The cultural influence on the language.
An analysis of language on newspaper advertisement.
The ecology of acquisition of language in adults.
The major principles of metamorphosis on language.
Communication diversity in the health care system.
Communication in a multicultural workplace.
The linguistic features of legal language.
The study of advertisement language.
The inhibitions of English language proficiency.
Class stratification, poverty, and social injustice influence language.

List of Research Topics in English Language

English as a language has evolved. Hence, the need to understand its evolution. The English language is just like any other diverse language like Chinese, Russian or French. Here are some top-notch topics that you can use for your research.

The origin of the English language and its assimilation with other languages.
The difference between North America and South America Literature.
The various Irish writers in English literature.
The contribution of Indian writers on evolving of the English language.
The major contribution of Shakespeare to the English language.
The impact of female writers on English literature.
The major challenges of learning English as a second language.
Is there any gender controversy in the modern English language?
The influence of the industrial evolution of modern English.
The effect of professional qualification of English teachers in school-going students.
The problems experienced while teaching the English language in school.
The implementation and policy of success and failure in English.
The influence of extensive reading in promoting communication in school.
Investigation of special language needs in workplaces.
The strategies used for improving low academic performance in the English language.

Easy Research Paper Topics for English

Are you wondering where to get the best English research paper topics for college students? People prefer doing easy research projects to hard ones that may take them a huge amount of time. These are some topics that you can start with:

The cross-cultural influences of the English language.
Analyze the gender controversy in modern English and its evolution.
The representation of women in literature and the impact.
The imagist movement in the English Language.
A linguistic style analysis of gender variations in television news reporting.
The influence of children’s literature on cultural integration in the world.
The language behavior and its effect on a multilingual setting.
A sociolinguistic study of non-standard English word use formally.
The influence of love poetry in embracing love in the world.
A linguistic analysis of the language of humor.
An investigation of the auxiliary verb acquisition problem.
The impact of self-directed learning strategies on written English.
A comparative analysis of word-formation processes in English.
The process of inferencing in Language.
The major barriers to second language acquisition of English.

Linguistics Research Topics

These linguistics research topics deal with investigating the influence of language on diversity, evolution, and society. Linguistics started long before and society has a different perception of it. In these topics, you will argue out the influence of Linguistic in various dynamics.

How does society alter some word meanings?
How do genders perceive politeness via language use?
English assessment as a second language.
What makes some languages to be endangered and what causes that?
A forensic assessment of linguistic diversity.
Is language an essential element of human life?
Can the task-based language teaching perception be measured?
Analyze the performance measures for speech recognition.
The characterization of linguistic dimensions in multidimensional analysis.
Is applied linguistic important in the digitalized world?

Are You Having Problems With Your Linguistics Paper?

Are you tired of having to research a topic and write on your own? Are you in need of professional writing? Don’t be afraid to get research paper help from our professional writers. We will make the process easy for you. We offer the best research paper writing service that you could ever think of. No more worries about where to get the best writing help. Contact us with a “ do my research paper for me ” request for quality assistance. We have ENL writers that are good at English to ensure everything works out as it should. They will provide custom essays, proposals, projects, thesis, and dissertations just for you.

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80+ Linguistics Research Paper Topics for True Writing Nerds

Table of Contents

Linguistics is a branch of English studies dealing with scientific analysis of the language in terms of context, meaning, and form. While many college and university students think language arts is an easy field, it is quite challenging. English professors might assign linguistic subject areas in semantics or phonology, which might leave you struggling with the pending assignment.

When researching the linguistics subject, your paper must present the nature, classification, and identification tools. Thus, linguistics is a study that brings out an in-depth analysis of a specific dialect to allow readers to understand the subject’s intricacies.

With many languages existing globally, finding an attention-grabbing topic should not be difficult. However, we have listed a few research paper topics about linguistics or English language arts for your writing inspiration.

How to Choose the Best Linguistic Research Paper Topic?

Topic selection forms a significant part of the essay writing process . It is imperative to pick a topic that aligns with the research question for proper understanding. First, ensure you conduct a thorough brainstorming session to develop relevant ideas within the linguistic subject area.

You can select a broad topic and break it down into minor sub-topics that have adequate research content.
Moreover, you can get ideas from previously published material from other scholars on the Internet.
Choose an exciting and catchy topic that will grab the audience into reading your paper.
Finally, make sure your composition meets the required paper specifications , not following the academic standard writing style.

If you get stuck, you can always seek professional assistance online from competent linguistic experts.

TOP-15: List of Linguistics Research Paper Topics

Below are interesting research paper topics about linguistics:

How Greek philosophers contributed to linguistics.
The importance of cuneiform writings to linguistic development.
Discuss the origin of dialects.
Analyze mythology in linguistics.
Language origination is an unfathomable issue.
Theory analysis of speech development.
Language as a communication tool.
How brain injuries influence speech production.
Is language a symbolic system?
Analyze linguistic disorders and challenges.
The effect of mother tongue on efficient communication.
The significance of studying more than one dialect.
Analyze mother tongue pronunciation and fluency.
Discuss the similarities between English and French.
Why do people communicate in different dialects?

20 Linguistic Anthropology Research Paper Topics

Analyze speech physiology and anatomy.
An evaluation of the Ape language.
What is folk speech ?
Discuss historical linguistics.
Analyze ethnographic semantics.
The relationship between culture and language.
An analysis of phonetics in linguistics.
The impact of computers on lexicon development.
Communication in a paralinguistic dialect.
What is sociolinguistics?
Language and Identity Construction: Exploring how language shapes and reflects individual and group identities in different cultural contexts.
Language Revitalization and Indigenous Communities: Investigating the efforts and challenges involved in revitalizing endangered languages and their impact on indigenous communities.
Language Socialization: Examining how language is learned and acquired within specific cultural and social settings, and its role in shaping individuals’ worldview.
Language and Power: Analyzing the relationship between language use and power dynamics in various social, political, and institutional contexts.
Multilingualism and Language Contact: Studying the effects of multilingualism and language contact on linguistic diversity, language change, and language shift.
Language and Gender: Investigating how language reflects and constructs gender identities and exploring the role of language in shaping gender relations.
Language and Globalization: Analyzing the impact of globalization on language practices, including the spread of dominant languages and the emergence of new hybrid forms.
Language and Migration: Examining the role of language in the processes of migration, including language acquisition, bilingualism, and the formation of diasporic communities.
Language and Embodiment: Exploring the relationship between language, the body, and sensory experience, and how language shapes our understanding of the world.
Language Ideologies and Policy: Investigating the ways in which language ideologies influence language policies and planning, and their effects on linguistic diversity and social inequality.

20 Applied Linguistics Research Paper Topics

An evaluation of hate speech.
What has applied in linguistics?
Discuss the relevance of applied linguistics development.
The impact of social media language on the modern generation.
Analyze applied linguistics in a digital world.
An analysis of written and spoken speech.
Multilingualism vs bilingualism.
Discuss language barriers in healthcare delivery.
Analyze language in a multicultural society.
Do social media users encounter communication barriers?
Language Acquisition in Multilingual Contexts: Investigating the processes and challenges of language acquisition for individuals growing up in multilingual environments.
Second Language Teaching and Learning Strategies: Examining effective strategies and approaches in second language instruction, such as task-based learning, technology-enhanced language learning, or content and language integrated learning (CLIL).
Language Assessment and Testing: Analyzing the development and validation of language assessment tools and exploring their impact on teaching and learning outcomes.
Language and Technology: Investigating the role of technology in language education, including computer-assisted language learning (CALL), mobile-assisted language learning (MALL), and online language learning communities.
English as a Lingua Franca: Examining the implications and challenges of English as a global communication tool and its impact on language policies and practices.
Language and Intercultural Communication: Exploring the role of language in intercultural interactions and analyzing the challenges and strategies for effective intercultural communication.
Language and Identity in Migration: Investigating how language use and language practices shape the identities of migrants and exploring the role of language in their social integration.
Language and Professional Communication: Analyzing language use and discourse patterns in specific professional contexts, such as business, medicine, or academia, and exploring the implications for language training.
Language and Heritage Preservation: Examining language maintenance efforts within immigrant communities and the impact of language preservation programs on cultural identity.
Language and Social Media: Investigating the use of language in online communication platforms, analyzing the linguistic features of digital discourse, and exploring the impact of social media on language use and identity construction.

10 Native Language Linguistics Research Paper Topics

Phonological Patterns in a Native Language: Analyzing the phonological system of a specific indigenous language, investigating its sound inventory, phonotactics, and phonological processes.
Syntactic Structures in a Native Language: Examining the syntactic properties and structures of a particular indigenous language, exploring its word order, sentence structure, and grammatical features.
Morphological Analysis of a Native Language: Investigating the morphological system of an indigenous language, studying its word formation processes, inflectional patterns, and derivational morphology.
Lexical Semantics in a Native Language: Exploring the meanings and semantic relationships of words in a specific native language, examining its lexical categories, semantic fields, and metaphoric expressions.
Language Documentation and Preservation: Conducting a documentation project of an endangered native language, documenting its grammar, vocabulary, and cultural contexts, and discussing the challenges and significance of language preservation efforts.
Sociolinguistic Variation in a Native Language: Investigating the sociolinguistic variation within a native language community, analyzing the linguistic features that vary according to social factors such as age, gender, or social status.
Language Revitalization Strategies: Examining the strategies and approaches employed in the revitalization of a native language, assessing their effectiveness and impact on language maintenance and community development.
Language Contact and Borrowing: Analyzing the effects of language contact on a native language, exploring the linguistic borrowing from dominant languages and investigating the sociolinguistic implications.
Pragmatic Patterns in a Native Language: Investigating the pragmatic features and discourse patterns in a specific indigenous language, analyzing its speech acts, politeness strategies, and conversational conventions.
Historical Linguistics of a Native Language: Tracing the historical development and changes in a native language, studying its language family, genetic relationships, and historical linguistic evidence.

10 Good Linguistic Research Paper Topics

Discuss the social factors affecting style variation.
Different societal attitudes towards language.
How your dialect impacts cultural identity.
The function of language in different communities.
How ethnicity influences linguistic expression and style.
Discuss the effectiveness of written vs. spoken communication.
An analysis of language translation .
Discuss the strategies of persuasive language in politics.
How colonial rule altered African languages.
An analysis of language acquisition.

10 Linguistic Research Paper Ideas for True Academic Nerds

Linguistic patterns in tracking migration routes.
Did computers impact language negatively?
An analysis of non-verbal communication .
How children acquire language skills.
The importance of learning many languages as a child.
The significance of music in language evolution.
How language forms cross-cultural ties.
The importance of learning body language.
What constitutes hate speech?
The influence of language on human behavior.

Quick and Simple Guide to Writing a Research Paper

When it comes to research paper composition, many students find it quite challenging to start. But having the right approach simplifies the entire process. Below is an overview of the steps you can follow to jumpstart your research paper writing and learning language arts through literature.

Understand the assignment

Take time to familiarize yourself with the linguistics research topics. What does your professor expect from you? Read the assignment carefully before moving to the next step.

Topic selection

Hard to choose between topics for English research paper? Identify a suitable topic through a thorough brainstorming session. It is easier once you know the paper’s expectations.

Extensive research

Conduct intense research about the good research paper topics for English you have selected. Use different academic sources to get adequate research content about the subject.

Thesis development

Organize your research and develop a powerful thesis statement. It gives your readers an idea of the research direction.

Outline creation

Depending on your paper, design a relevant outline that captures your entire logically. Ensure you have an introduction, main body, and conclusion in your English research paper topics.

Finally, start the composition and ensure your arguments flow without any vague explanation. Be clear and logical in each paragraph.

Editing and proofreading

Edit your work thoroughly and proofread for errors. Ensure it follows all the academic standard rules before submission.

How a Professional Writer Can Enhance Your Academic Performance

Stuck with a linguistic research paper? Peruse the above topics to find the right topic for your paper.

If you are still grappling with the writing process, we are here to offer professional assistance. Our team of competent language experts ensures you understand your assignment through a one-on-one personalized learning approach. Whatever writing help you need, we are ready to burn the midnight oil for you. Talk to us and experience top-notch academic excellence.

Therefore, contact our professional paper writer now and let us know more about your research paper. We are here to ensure your professor awards you stellar grades without a doubt.

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View all journals

Language and linguistics articles from across Nature Portfolio

Latest research and reviews.

Does simplification hold true for machine translations? A corpus-based analysis of lexical diversity in text varieties across genres

Subtitling saudi arabic slang into english: the case of “the book of the sun” on netflix.

Sukayna Ali
Hanan Al-Jabri
Wan Rose Eliza Abdul Rahman

ChatGPT and the digitisation of writing

Translation, transmission and indigenization of Christianity in nineteenth-century China: south-to-north travel of the disguised San Zi Jing by Medhurst

A multi-dimensional analysis of interpreted and non-interpreted english discourses at chinese and american government press conferences.

Dandan Sheng

Geospace translation strategies and their cognitive construal

News and Comment

Time to revise the terminology we use to regulate water management practices.

Paul Jeffrey
Heather Smith
Francis Hassard

Is boredom a source of noise and/or a confound in behavioral science research?

Behavioral researchers tend to study behavior in highly controlled laboratory settings to minimize the effects of potential confounders. Yet, while doing so, the artificial setup itself might unintentionally introduce noise or confounders, such as boredom. In this perspective, we draw upon theoretical and empirical evidence to make the case that (a) some experimental setups are likely to induce boredom in participants, (b) the degree of boredom induced might differ between individuals as a function of differences in trait boredom, (c) boredom can impair participants’ attention, can make study participation more effortful, and can increase the urge to do something else (i.e., to disengage from the study). Most importantly, we argue that some participants might adjust their behavior because they are bored. Considering boredom’s potential for adding noise to data, or for being an unwanted confound, we discuss a set of recommendations on how to control for and deal with the occurrence and effects of boredom in behavioral science research.

Maria Meier
Corinna S. Martarelli
Wanja Wolff

Exploration of the social and philosophical underpinning of ‘the patient’—what this means for people with a long-term condition

Should healthcare professionals use the term ‘patient’? A patient is a social construct, in a biomedical model, in which each actor has their role to play. This model has been criticised as belonging to an era of medical hegemony and (mis)represents an individual seeking healthcare as one who is simply a passive participant and recipient of care. The ‘Language Matters’ campaign, for people living with diabetes, has sought to address the role of language in interactions between healthcare providers. A key point raised in the campaign is whether someone who feels well, but has ongoing healthcare input, should be referred to as a patient? In this article, we address the concept of a patient and how its use can belie a particular mindset (or ‘discourse’) in which power is established in a relationship and can lead to individuals being defined by their condition. However, for some linguistic communities (such as nurses and doctors), a patient may be considered less as one over whom they have dominion, but rather someone for whom they have specific responsibilities and duty of care. Drawing upon the philosophical theories of language—that the meaning and inference of a word is dependent on its use—we argue that the context in which use of the term patient occurs is crucial. Without more fundamental cultural disruption of the biomedical model, word substitution, in itself, will not change perception.

M. B. Whyte

Approaching the neuroscience of language

Marika Gobbo

Neural evidence of word prediction

Jane Aristia

The usefulness of ChatGPT for psychotherapists and patients

ChatGPT is a chatbot based on a large language model. Its application possibilities are extensive, and it is freely accessible to all people, including psychotherapists and individuals with mental illnesses. Some blog posts about the possible use of ChatGPT as a psychotherapist or as a supplement to psychotherapy already exist. Based on three detailed chats, the author analyzed the chatbot’s responses to psychotherapists seeking assistance, to patients looking for support between psychotherapy sessions, during their psychotherapists’ vacations, and to people suffering from mental illnesses who are not yet in psychotherapy. The results suggest that ChatGPT offers an interesting complement to psychotherapy and an easily accessible, good (and currently free) place to go for people with mental-health problems who have not yet sought professional help and have no psychotherapeutic experience. The information is, however, one-sided, and in any future regulation of AI it must also be made clear that the proposals are not only insufficient as a psychotherapy substitute, but also have a bias that favors certain methods while not even mentioning other approaches that may be more helpful for some people.

Paolo Raile

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Linguistics: Choose a Topic

Choose a Topic
Reference Shelf
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Choose a Research Topic / Review the Literature

Personal interest : If feasible, concentrate your efforts on a topic that interests you personally (e.g., bilingual education; English and the immigrant community; history of the English language). Think creatively. Personal interest increases motivation, which in turn often predicts success.
Brainstorm : Identify synonyms for major concepts (e.g., Applied Linguistics = Language Services). Those "keywords" will come in handy when searching databases such as JSTOR for journal articles about your topic.
Mindmap : A concept or mindmap uses shape, color, and other visual cues to help researchers think through a research topic. Check out this video for a good example of a mindmap in action. Consult your smart phone's app store for free and low-cost mindmapping apps.
Explore : Identify important linguists and disciplinary trends. Read, for example, about the careers of well-known linguists such as Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), Noam Chomsky (1928- ), or William Labov (1927- ); follow the trajectory of an important theory or school of thought such as generativism or universal grammar; and/or concentrate on developments in the field of linguistics during a particular decade such as the 1960s. You can do all of this and more using the sources listed on the Reference Shelf page of this libguide.
Consult an Expert : Linguistics students must engage with the scholarly secondary literature. Why not begin with an expert who already knows that literature or can help you to identify it? Your professor or librarian can help you to choose a topic and suggest relevant readings.

Library-centric approaches to reviewing the literature and refining your research topic:

Citation (or Footnote) Chasing : A popular research technique in which the bibliographies of works already located in a literature search (or assigned by your professor) are examined for additional sources containing further information. Books (monographs), journal articles, and scholarly encyclopedia articles all typically contain bibliographies. Footnote chasing is a favorite of many scholars but it is not the only or even most efficient method of reviewing the literature and choosing/narrowing your research topic. Although moderately time consuming, footnote chasing can pay huge dividends to the researcher.
Consult Reference Works : Reference works list, index, summarize, or in some other way facilitate access to the primary literature of linguistics. Examples of important reference works in linguistics include the encyclopedias listed in the Reference Shelf and Find Articles and Journals pages of this guide.
Abstracting and Indexing Databases (subset of Reference) : Abstracting and indexing databases are tertiary sources that provide bibliographic citations and/or abstracts of the literature of a discipline (e.g., LLBA for linguistics). Print indexes (and their online analogs) employ controlled vocabularies or subject headings to help researchers understand the nature of the content indexed and to efficiently pinpoint the most relevant material. See the Find Articles and Journals page of this guide for links to important indexes and databases in linguistics.
Published Bibliographies (subset of Reference) : A bibliography is a systematic list of works written on a given subject, or that share one or more common characteristics of language, form, period, place of publication, author, and so on. A bibliography can be comprehensive, encompassing for example the entire discipline of linguistics, or selective, covering only the scholarly literature on a narrow aspect of second language acquisition. The Reference Shelf tab of this guide provides links to several important linguistics bibliographies.
Browse the Secondary Literature : Browse the latest issue of a peer-reviewed linguistics journal. While this method is much more time consuming than searching abstracting and indexing databases, use it to identify recent disciplinary problems and debates. Find linguistics journals in the Find Articles and Journals page of this guide.

Source for definitions: ODLIS: Online Dictionary of Library and Information Science

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Linguistics Dissertation Research Topics

Published by Carmen Troy at January 9th, 2023 , Revised On August 11, 2023

Introduction

It is crucial to select a topic to conduct a dissertation and have a proper analysis of the chosen topic. This study will highlight various aspects of linguistics. The relation between English pronunciation with linguistics has been identified throughout the study. Linguistics has a significant influence on English pronunciation and grammar, especially in evaluating the changes that occur after comprehending the science of language.

Linguistic and English pronunciation has been interlinked in many ways in the study. This topic is selected to understand the different dimensions of linguistics, and various issues have been identified. A proper explanation has been stated for linguistics that will develop the concept of the impact of English pronunciation and other related aspects of linguistics.

You may also be interested in dissertation topics on literature , English 101 , history , philosophy , and sociology .

2022 Linguistics Dissertation Research Topics

Topic 1: an assessment of the importance of vocabulary building for the students in order to succeed and give better results for the english language and the role of teachers within it..

Research Aim: This research study aims to investigate how certain practices followed by the teachers of English literature can lead to positive outcomes within students in terms of creativity and fluency of English language speaking. Therefore, another aim of this study is to explore the significance of vocabulary building for the peers to succeed and provide better results in terms of speaking the English language as well as the fundamental role played by teachers within it.

Topic 2: An examination of vocabulary Acquisition and the role of parents.

Research Aim: This study aims to examine the use of language at home and its impact on children’s linguistic abilities. It will also investigate the facts on how many homes with children in the UK do not have a single book. Furthermore, this study will present different insights and recommendations for improving the vocabulary and language abilities of children.

Topic 3: A comparative study between Dialectic tone and changing languages.

Research Aim: This study will examine the field of applied linguistics with the incorporation of stereotypes. A comparative study will be conducted between dialectic tone and changing languages, and results will be obtained from these two groups. This study will collect data from the previous literature and make extensive use of it on the subject of regional accents.

Topic 4: Assessing the nature of political oppression and its influence on the language used in media.

Research Aim: Recognition of the essential link between language and politics may be established back to historical Greek and Roman rhetorical treatises. Because of the critical significance that political language played in state affairs. This study aims to find the influence of political oppression on the language used in media. It will also focus on the history of PDA and some socio-political issues that occurred due to oppression and aggressive language.

Topic 5: Significance of eye tracking technology for improvements in the applied linguistics department- A review of the literature.

Research Aim: Eye-tracking has grown into an effective tool in scientific study, making its way into fields such as the applied linguistics department, opening the doors for new discoveries and situations. This study will focus on the significance of eye tracking technology for improvements in the applied linguistics department and how it has filled the gaps to help encourage the development of innovative methodologies. We will review previous literature for this research to get a better understanding of eye tracking technology and its significance.

Linguistic Research Topics

Topic 1: linguistics: a tool to help in understanding the pronunciation development.

Research Aim: The paper aims to research linguistics as a tool that will help understand the importance of pronunciation development. Linguistics has been very useful in developing pronunciation that has benefitted the power of vocabulary. Therefore, this research wants to understand pronunciation development amongst the children of Australia through linguistics.

Topic 2: Comprehending the science of language through linguistics

Research Aim: The paper has the aim of researching and understanding the science of language through linguistics. Linguistics is considered to be the science of the English language. Linguistics are scientists that apply scientific techniques to comprehend the function and kind of language. Therefore, this research will only focus on understanding linguistics, the science of language, and the scientific methods to determine its functions and nature.

Topic 3: Linguistics and phenomenology: Inseparable parts in language

Research Aim: The research aims to understand the inter-relation between linguistics and phenomenology. Linguists consider linguistics and phenomenology inseparable because phenomenology is the study of the structure that enhances language related to linguistics. Therefore, the research will be focusing on the relationship that links phenomenology together.

Topic 4: Study of phonetics as a part of linguistics

Research Aim: The paper aims to research the study of phonetics being a crucial part of linguistic. Phonetics is the study of sound, which helps in understanding language. Phonetics is also an integral part of linguistics that helps understand the language and the different ways of pronouncing it. Therefore, the main focus will be studying phonetics to be an integral part of language and linguistics.

Topic 5: Linguistics: In shaping the future direction of grammar

Research Aim: The aim is to excavate the importance of linguistics in shaping the future direction of grammar. Grammar is an essential part that helps enhance both writing and vocabulary skills; hence, linguistics helps build the concept of grammar and its correct use. So, the study will focus on the importance of pf linguistics in developing grammar.

Topic 6: Understanding dialects through linguistics

Research Aim: The focus of the paper will be given on understanding dialects of linguistic. Dialects are the diversity of language used by different speakers, and linguistics helps in understanding the dialects of various regions and areas. Comprehending dialects will help improve the language, and the local language speakers of Australia enhance the western language. Hence, the aim is to understand different dialects through linguistics.

Topic 7: Linguistics: English pronunciation has impacted age groups

Research Aim: The primary purpose is to determine the impacts that the English language has on different age groups of Australia. The English language affects other age groups of Australia, and the aged population faces difficulty in comprehending and speaking the English language compared to the young population. Hence, the paper’s main focus will be given on the impacts that are cast on different age groups in Australia because of the English language.

Topic 8: Linguistics helping aged people to understand English pronunciation

Research Aim: The research paper aims to study how linguistics helps the aged people of Australia to understand English pronunciation. The aged people of Australia face difficulty communicating because of their poor English accent, which can be mitigated through linguistics. So, the study will be focused on linguistics that helps the aged people of Australia to understand English pronunciation.

Topic 9: Linguistics: A medium of understanding the theoretical goals

Research Aim: The purpose of the study is to understand linguistics being the medium of comprehending the theoretical goals. Theoretical goals mean what theory is implied in the text. Linguistics helps in understanding the theory relevant to the text and its aim. Therefore, the aim is to define and understand linguistics being the medium of comprehending the theoretical goals.

Topic 10: Understanding human speech through linguistics

Research Aim: The purpose of the paper is to comprehend human speech through linguistics. Human speech is beneficial for defining and understanding different speeches of a human through linguistic.

Topic 11: Linguistics: A medium of understanding literary context

Research Aim: The aim is to explain linguistics being the medium of comprehending the literary context. Linguistic helps in understanding the literary context studied by the students of Australia to grasp the meaning of the language.

Topic 12: Understanding the importance of phenomenology through linguistics

Research Aim: The study will focus on the importance of phenomenology through the perspective of linguistics. Understanding the structure of language is very important to enhance language, which is only possible through linguistics.

Topic 13: English Literature and linguistics

Research Aim: The focus of the study is on English literature and linguistics. English literature and linguistics help in understanding how much language is structured through linguistics.

Topic 14: Setting the standard of language pronunciation through linguistics.

Research Aim: The research paper will emphasize determining the standard of language pronunciation through linguistics. The importance and standard of the English language and its pronunciation are possible through linguistics.

Topic 15: Linguistics developing sense about the English language

Research Aim: The research paper describes linguistics helping in growing the idea and sense of the English language. Linguistics is very helpful in understanding the concept of the English language.

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25+ Research Ideas in Linguistics You Can Explore as a High Schooler

Research is an invaluable asset in shaping your academic journey, especially for high school students aiming to stand out in college applications. You’ll demonstrate your expertise in an advanced academic topic and ability to create a self-driven project with meaningful analytical methods and findings.

If you have an inclination towards language and communication, exploring the diverse realm of linguistics through research offers a unique path to show interdisciplinary skill across STEM, social sciences, and the humanities. Linguistics extends into disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology, and computer science, opening doors to multifaceted research not restricted to a single field . Though university-level linguistics research in linguistics can require a high level of expertise, there are many approachable research topics to demonstrate your passion for the field.

Let's explore what makes a compelling research topic in linguistics and present 25 intriguing research ideas that might captivate and inspire your linguistic journey.

Historical Linguistics

Fascinated by the evolution of languages through time? Historical linguistics explores the changes languages undergo over centuries. It delves into reconstructing ancient languages, tracking phonological shifts, and uncovering how vocabularies transform. Here are potential research topics in historical linguistics to explore the intricate journeys languages take across history.

Language Shift and Endangerment in Indigenous Communities: Studying the factors leading to language shift and endangerment in indigenous communities, exploring sociocultural, political, and historical reasons behind language decline.

Proto-Language Reconstruction of a Language Family: Investigating the common linguistic features among related languages to reconstruct their hypothetical ancestral language, exploring the phonological, morphological, and syntactic traits.

Diachronic Analysis of Sound Changes in a Language: Tracking the evolution of phonological features across different historical stages of a language family, identifying systematic sound changes.

Morphosyntactic Changes in Historical Texts: Investigating the evolution of grammatical structures and syntactic patterns in historical texts, tracing changes in sentence construction and morphological rules over time.

Linguistic Evolution in Colonized Regions: Studying the linguistic impact of colonization on indigenous languages, examining how contact with colonial languages has influenced vocabulary, grammar, and language structure over time.

Ever wondered how words are formed and structured? Morphology is the study of word formation and structure within languages. It dissects how affixes, roots, and compounds create meaning. Exploring topics in morphology unveils the intricate construction of words and their variation between communities, age groups, and languages.

6. Reduplication Patterns in Child Language Development: Investigating the role and prevalence of reduplication (repeating a word or part of a word) in early language acquisition among toddlers.

7. Compounding in Technical Jargon: Analyzing how technical fields create new compound words to convey complex concepts and whether these compounds follow specific morphological rules.

8. Derivational Morphology in Slang: Exploring how slang evolves through the addition of affixes and changes in word forms to convey nuanced meanings in digital communication.

9. Morphological Adaptation in Loanword Integration: Studying how borrowed words from one language adapt morphologically in another language, especially in terms of affixation and derivation.

10. Diminutives in Children's Speech Development: Investigating the role and frequency of diminutive forms (such as "-ie" or "-y" endings) in early language acquisition and their impact on language development.

Phonetics and Phonology

Intrigued by the sounds and rhythms of speech? Phonetics studies the physical aspects of speech sounds, while phonology examines how these sounds function within a language's structure. Delving into these areas opens doors to understanding accent variations, sound symbolism, and the intricate rules governing speech patterns.

11. Mimicry and Accent Acquisition: Investigating how people acquire new accents, examining the effects of exposure duration and social context.

12. Regional dialectal variation: Analyzing pronunciation differences and their development across dialects and the phonological patterns they demonstrate.

13. Speech Therapy Techniques: Studying effective methods to improve speech impediments, such as articulation exercises or technology-assisted interventions

14. Tonal Patterns in Song Lyrics: Analyzing the use of tone and intonation in lyrics across different music genres to understand how tonal patterns contribute to artistic expression and emotional conveyance.

15. Vowel Reduction in Rapid Speech: Investigating how vowel reduction occurs in fast-paced speech, particularly in conversational settings, and its impact on overall speech intelligibility.

Psycholinguistics

Interested in how the mind processes language? Psycholinguistics delves into the cognitive mechanisms behind language acquisition, comprehension, and production. It explores how memory, emotions, and perception influence language , offering insights into bilingualism, language development, and more.

16. Language Processing in Bilingual Individuals: Studying cognitive disparities and variations in speech production and comprehension between the languages of bilingual individuals.

17. Syntactic Error Analysis in Second Language Acquisition: Examining common mistakes in word ordering and/or sentence formation while learning a new language.

18 . Language and Emotion : Identifying specific linguistic elements, such as tone, lexical choice, or syntactic structures, that influence how emotions are understood and/or expressed in communication.

19. Speech Perception and Cognitive Load: Analyzing how external distractions affect the ability to comprehend and/or retain speech information.

20 . Language Development in Children: Studying the milestones and patterns in children’s language acquisition during early developmental stages.

Sociolinguistics

Curious about how language shapes and reflects society? Sociolinguistics explores the interplay between language and social dynamics. It uncovers how language choices signify social identities and how linguistic variations emerge within communities.

21. Code-Switching Among Peers: Analyzing why and how individuals switch between languages in conversation, and the contexts in which code-switching occurs most frequently.

22. Perception of Languages and Their Speakers: Investigating how language biases and stereotypes influence perceptions of different languages and their speakers.

23. Internet Language and Communication: Examining the usage and familiarity of linguistic elements in online communication among different age groups.

24. Linguistic Markers of Identity and Community Membership: Analyzing how linguistic features and vocabulary are utilized to signify identity traits such as race, class, gender, or sexuality within communities.

25. Language and Workplace Dynamics: Investigating how linguistic choices and communication styles influence workplace interactions and professional relationships, hierarchies, and collaboration among employees.

Suggested by Lumiere member from Princeton University.

One other option – Lumiere Research Scholar Program

If you are interested in doing university-level research in linguistics, then you could also consider applying to the Lumiere Research Scholar Program , a selective online high school program for students that I founded with researchers at Harvard and Oxford. Last year, we had over 4000 students apply for 500 spots in the program! You can find the application form here.

Also check out the Lumiere Research Inclusion Foundation , a non-profit research program for talented, low-income students.

Stephen is one of the founders of Lumiere and a Harvard College graduate. He founded Lumiere as a Ph.D. student at Harvard Business School. Lumiere is a selective research program where students work 1-1 with a research mentor to develop an independent research paper.

Image Source: Unsplash

research ideas

Linguistics Research Paper Topics for Students

Research Paper Topics

Linguistics as a subject refers to studying different languages from several perspectives. And while you think writing a language essay equals describing the English language, you mustn’t get the point. This covers many fields like phonology, phonetics, semantics, morphology, and others.

First, you must choose its topic, whether you have to write a research paper or a language essay.

Interesting Language Essay Topics Just for You

Many linguistic phenomena can be described in language essays. But, at least, considering that there are more than 7,000 other languages worldwide, the choice becomes overwhelming. And you can spend so much time looking through books and generating some suitable language essay topics. But there is a way to make the selection process easier: use our linguistics topic suggestions as an inspiration. So go ahead and choose your perfect language essay topic!

How to Choose a Topic for a Language Essay?

Selecting a topic for your language essay is not a chaotic process. However, it does require following a particular procedure. Below, you can find the steps that will help you to pick up successful language essay topics.

Always focus on your preferences. Essay writing will not be accessible without inspiration. And that comes from choosing the area you are fond of. If you feel like researching the phenomenon of the English language – go ahead. But if you are into discovering other languages – why don’t you try that? At least you will be interested in writing your language essay.
Learn the trends. It is always crucial to remember that your essay should be relevant to modern discoveries in linguistics. You can read some works of modern linguists to get ideas of the actual discovery ground.
Research the sources. You want to write your language essays on themes that have a solid background. If you choose a controversial topic, it might be challenging for you to stand the position professionally. So always check the literature field when you decide on a specific topic.
Choose a particular time and field. As much as there are different languages, you can find schools, theories, and linguists. But your task is to single out one period of linguistics development.
Brainstorm some ideas. Write a lot of synonyms for the theme you are weighing up. Read similar topics to your opinions as it will help you to form your language essay topic properly.
Consult your professor. Having more expertise in academic writing, your professor will advise you whether your topic is a great match. The professional consultation will also guide you through the following essay-writing steps.

Foreign Language Essay: Best Topics

It is always helpful to have some language essay topics as an example. In this section, you will find the top 20 themes in linguistics at your disposal.

English as a second language: how to become fluent in English?
What is the influence of the mother tongue in learning other languages?
Gender differences in language
What impact do dialects have on the English language?
Does the fact of knowing different languages increase the level of literacy?
Will any other language replace the English language as the global language?
Comparative analysis of British and American accents
Language acquisition definition
Spanish language in medieval times and nowadays: a comparative study
How do the Central and Northern Chinese differ?
The history of the Italian language
Phonetics of the most melodious language in the world – the Italian language
Why do children learn different languages easier than adults?
Will the Chinese language replace the English language?
The phonology of the words in the English language is borrowed from the French language
The confluence of religion in the Arab language
Analyzing the language branches
Vowel pronunciation in British English
Non-verbal communication in the Italian language
What is the role of applied linguistics in teaching the English language?

Best Language Topics for Research Paper

Are you ready to meet another portion of the inspiration for your language essay topic selection process? Meet our following 25 topics for research papers in linguistics below.

Why is the language arbitrary?
Teaching English as a second language with the audio-visual method
How can language become dead?
Can a person learning English as a second language operate and understand it as a native speaker?
How do babies learn a language?
How does translation cause misunderstanding between different languages?
Is the language connected to mythology?
The origins of the English language
How does verbal communication help to express emotions?
The unique method of learning other languages by Michel Thomas
Is sign language a natural language?
How is the meaning of the words changing in the English language?
How do immigrants influence the English language?
Why should children learn a second language?
What is more powerful: verbal or non-verbal communication?
Cultural linguistics definition
Are any changes happening in the brain when a person is learning other languages?
The harmful impact of computers on language development
Learning a second language with neuro-linguistic programming
Is bilingualism a problem?
How does the language represent our thoughts?
Post-Tudor English language
Is slang a problem for a language?
Do social media use language for influence?
The difference between phonology and phonetics.

Winning Topics for Linguistics Essay

A topic in a language essay is the first thing everyone sees. It should be compelling and beautiful. You can greatly benefit if you catch the reader’s attention from the very beginning. Use our language essay topics to make an impression on your readers!

Can the language be beautiful?
Can hate speech be called verbal violence?
Is applied linguistics still useful for modern language research?
Is knowing a written second language the same as knowing a spoken language?
The connection between literature and applied linguistics
Is multilingualism beneficial?
Can language be considered a national identity?
What is the language barrier when learning a second language?
The difference between syntax and morphology
Generative grammar principles
What languages are endangered?
Can the wording be replaced with codes?
What is the difference between adults’ second language learning and children’s second language learning?
Why are some languages easy to learn and other languages challenging to acquire?
Is the grammar-translation method still relevant in learning the English language?
What is the best way to assess a person’s ability to operate different languages?
The language definition by Vilhelm von Humboldt
Post-structuralism in linguistics
Comparative analysis of Shakespeare’s English and modern English language
What is the role of grammar in learning a second language?

Research Paper About Different Languages

Is discovering the English language, not your way? Then it would help if you chose something from the different languages research paper topics.

What are the modern methods of studying other languages?
The oldest language in the world
Slavic language branch linguistic characteristics
Analysis of artificial languages
Latin language and its influence on different languages
How did the writing originate? Analysis of writing systems
How do neologisms occur in languages?
Linguistic geography
The definition of Creole languages
Comparative analysis of the Cyrillic and Latin alphabets
Indian language scripts
Ancient Arabic language and modern Arabic language
Is philology a natural science?
Famous linguists of the Medieval era
Great ape language: teaching language to gorillas and monkeys
Why can one language be spoken differently in different countries?
Lingoudidactis: modern and past methods of teaching foreign languages
Does brain injury influence the ability to acquire a language?
Origins of the Arabic alphabet
Foreign languages that are spoken in the USA.

Essay Topics on Learning Languages

Linguistics studies the phenomena of language as a system and the process of learning languages. This is a whole field of exploration, so you might also find these language essay topics suitable.

The right age to start learning a new language for children
Usage of innovative technologies in teaching the English language as a second language
How to develop communicative skills when teaching vocabulary
What are the most effective methods for learning a new language?
What should a modern language lesson look like?
Why is listening to the most challenging skill to develop when teaching languages?
Bilingual children and their psychology
Is grammar important while learning languages?
Overview of the foreign language learning strategies
The effectiveness of using educational software to learn a foreign language
The socio-cultural aspect of learning the language
Investigating cognitive processes while learning a new language
Learning languages through meditation: is it effective?
Is online education more effective when learning a language?
The history of foreign language learning methods
Case study methods in teaching languages
Game-based learning in teaching foreign languages
The direct method of teaching English overview
How to asset speaking skills in a new language?
Teaching new language through literature.

Top Ideas for Your Linguistics Essay

If you still haven’t decided which language essay topic is the best pick, we have prepared 15 bonus ideas from which you can formulate your theme for language essays.

How has technology caused the creation of a new linguistic subculture?
What role does body language play in communication?
The evolution of slang
Does someone have the predisposition to learn a language?
Is the English language a cause for other languages to become dead?
Linguistic changes in the English language
What is computational linguistics?
Linguistic dimensions overview
Diglossia in sociolinguistics
Are dictionaries still relevant?
Linguistics of commercial texts
Analysis of “How Language Shapes the Way We Think” Ted Talk by Boroditsky
The linguistics of pictograms
Overview of the translation theories
Is punctuation important in modern writing?

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20th-century delineations, formal linguistics, noam chomsky, language competence and the sentence, functional linguistics, structural and comparative linguistics, sociolinguistic perspectives, language mixtures, pidgins and creoles, linguistics and politics, language extinction, psycholinguistics, semantics and pragmatics.

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The reasons and methods for trying to understand language have changed from one historic era to the next, making scholarly activity in the field known as linguistics as vibrant as each era. Knowledge of the changes in perspective about language development provides one key to unlocking the door to characterize the nature of human beings as well as unlocking the door to the evolution and growth of societies. For example, Franz Boas (1858–1942) used what became known as descriptive-structural linguistics in his studies of culture and anthropology in the early 20th century. His interpretation of language was, in the words of Michael Agar (1994), “just a ‘part’ of anthropological fieldwork, and the point of fieldwork was to get to culture” (p. 49). This sense of linguistics as a vehicle was shared by the students of Boas and became a primary interpretation for many years, especially through the influence of Leonard Bloomfield. One can only imagine the kinds and degrees of meaning that are lost to us about peoples of the world due to the formal methods used in the study of language in the early 20th century and the relegation of language, as a research tool, as it was by Boas and Bloomfield. However, for the time, descriptivestructural linguistics was a significant advancement, albeit more of a part of anthropology rather than a separate field in itself. That changed dramatically in the latter half of the 20th century, particularly with the dynamic referred to by Noam Chomsky (2005) as the second cognitive revolution when the number of new research fields increased (e.g., cognitive psychology, computer science, artificial intelligence). The first cognitive revolution is a cognomen for the period between the 17th and early 19th centuries when classical thoughts and theories about language were proposed, especially by philosophers such as René Descartes, Gottfried Leibnitz, and Immanuel Kant.

In the 21st century, the methods of language study and characterizations of linguistics hardly resemble those of Boas and anthropologists in his era. Current scholars cannot capture all the characteristics of language in just one definition or modality to designate linguistics as one singular field of study. Multiple views of language and linguistics support a richer perspective about the study of language and people than one that identifies linguistic methods only as tools to find out about culture.

Philology in the 1800s was the ancestor to general linguistics. Those who identified themselves as philologists were oftentimes recruits from the field of philosophy. Their studies provided historical perspectives about languages—classifying and categorizing them by phonology, morphology, and syntax (but not so much by semantics and pragmatics).

Much of the early linguistic research (i.e., up to the first half of the 20th century) was undertaken to find out about the speech of ancient peoples. Thus, there was a reliance on writings—as well as on the spoken word—as these survived and changed into modern eras. Comparative linguistics enabled scientists to look for patterns in spoken languages in order to find connections among them that might give some indication of evolution. Those involved in comparative linguistics were close cousins to researchers in the current subfield of sociolinguistics, which attempts to understand language use and its social implications as well as the consequences of language and literacy development and education among citizens of world nations and societies within them.

In the latter half of the 20th century, the pursuit of language understanding enhanced the identity of linguistics as a field constituted of several subfields, with each involving the study of specific human dimensions evidenced in language use. For example, forensic linguistics provides insights into language, law, and crime; neurolinguistics includes the relationships between language and the human nervous system. This latter field holds much promise for understanding individuals afflicted with aphasia and other communication disorders. It also provides answers regarding second-language learning and multilingualism. Another linguistic subfield, computational linguistics, is one that has supported the developments of the computer age. This field involves scholars from a wide range of related disciplines (e.g., logicians, computer scientists, anthropologists, cognitive scientists) in the study of natural language understanding to create models for incorporation in technological devices and instrumentation for crosslinguistic communication and translation. For example, the quality of voice recognition on the telephone, as well as the complexities of voice recognition responses, was unimaginable even in the early 1980s. Likewise, translations of written languages in computer search engines, such as Google, require sensitivity to meaning as well as to the interpretations of words and grammar between any two languages.

The branching off of language studies into a range of related linguistic disciplines demonstrates that there is no limit to the number and variety of questions that can be approached. Answers are constrained only by one’s choice of definition, purpose, and characterization of language. Even so, the richness of language research, both past and present, shows that an answer to one question many times leads to new and more interesting ones. And, for the most part, language questions are now perceived to pose dynamic challenges in and among subfields of linguistics. For example, why should we be concerned about the extinction of languages? How did spoken languages evolve?

The Nature of Language

Studies of language by researchers who are designated as members of one of the several subfields of linguistics is limited by the particular theory or theories held by the particular researcher(s). Each theory is derived from the definitions of elements or characteristics of language that are of interest to the individual. Definitions of language chosen by linguists will influence the direction in which research will proceed; however, among the linguists, there is much cross-disciplinary understanding that continuously reshapes arguments and individual theories.

There are a great variety of scholarly definitions for language as well as for languages. Each reflects the theoretical perspectives and areas of study of the specific group (i.e., subfield) of linguists. If one were to ask for a definition from those who are not considered academics, however, they more often than not would associate language with spoken communication. Joel Davis, in his discussions about the mother tongue, explains that there is somewhat of a dilemma for linguists to pose a singular definition to language because of the multiplicity of characteristics and the use of one’s own language to describe language in general. To capture the nature of language and define it, linguists attempt to study language structure (form) as well as language use ( function ). Studies may reveal things in single languages or singular situations or may uncover things by comparison of one language to another language or other languages.

Those who look at the structure of languages do so to establish a foundation for exploring distinct parts and compositions of specific languages in order to see what might be common among them. Van Valin explains that from the beginning of the 20th century, those who were curious about “linguistic science,” such as Boas and his contemporary Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913), were especially focused on identifying language systems to support the further study of language use. This positioned the definitions of language within a construct that came to be known as structural linguistics. In the 1930s, Leonard Bloomfield reinforced the idea of structuralism, claiming that the main object of linguistic study should involve grammatical principles that have little or nothing to do with observations of what individuals know or think about their language.

In the second half of the 20th century, as researchers from fields such as psychology, cognitive science, and sociology began to take interest in language studies, definitions of language could be distinguished as representative of one of two major linguistic areas, formalism or functionalism. The former area involves linguistic study of the systematic, organized ways that language is structured. The latter area is more concerned with language use and the reasons why individuals choose to speak in certain ways and not in others.

Franz Boas, Ferdinand de Saussure, and Leonard Bloomfield are among those who are acknowledged as formal linguistic researchers in the first half of the 20th century. Their theories and the field of structural linguistics led the way to expanded ideas about language study. Boas is considered to be the father of American anthropology, and as stated above, his use of linguistic analyses was only as a tool to get to culture. Although Saussure did not write down his ideas in articles or books, his lecture notes distributed among his students became a text after his death titled Course in General Linguistics. Language researchers give recognition to Saussure for the growth of linguistics as a science, and his work has been a central one for the development of the subfield of sociolinguistics. Bloomfield is best known as a linguist, although some classify him as an anthropologist. Of his many writings, his book Language was revered for its discussions of structural linguistics and comparative work to characterize languages.

The work of these three scholars—Boas, Saussure, and Bloomfield—left an indelible imprint on the field of linguistics. In their wake, there began a strong desire among young language researchers to pursue studies in formal linguistics. However, none was to compare to Noam Chomsky who moved formal linguistics into a new home, that of generative transformational grammar.

A political activist and formal linguist, Chomsky designated two particular foci for characterizing and, thus, added to the definitions of language. In his book Aspects of a Theory of Syntax, he distinguishes between language competence and language performance. Previously, those researchers who were identified with structural linguistics ignored or paid little attention to language competence which, as stated by Van Valin (2001), “refers to a native speaker’s knowledge of his or her native language” (p. 326). Structuralists were more concerned about language performance, or how speakers used the language forms to communicate. In Chomsky’s work and that of others who ascribe to the newer area of formalism, there is more of an involvement with explorations of cognition, and this situates language competence as the main focus for striving to define language. Those who study generative transformational grammar in the tradition of Chomsky look for linguistic characteristics that are universal to all languages (e.g., all natural languages have nouns and verbs). Language is approached by exploring its generative capacity using a logical system of transformations to manipulate syntax.

Chomsky’s work drew attention to distinctions between the surface and deep structures of sentences. For example, he notes that the difference between the following two sentences is at the level of deep structure; both are composed of the same syntactic elements in the same order at the surface but differ at the deep level:

John is easy to please.

John is eager to please.

A critical part of the linguistic theories of Chomsky concerns how humans are “wired” for language. Having critiqued the work presented in B. F. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior, Chomsky reinforced his own belief that humans have innate knowledge of grammar as evidenced in the ways that individuals can generate new, never before uttered sentences.

This particular view of universal grammar and linguistic nativism contradicted the work of Edward Sapir and his student Benjamin Whorf; both had proposed a theory of linguistic relativity. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis states that the cognition of individuals is influenced by their linguistic experiences within their given cultures. In other words, people in different cultures have different worldviews that have been tempered by the ways that their languages are structured and used.

In the 1960s, Thomas G. Bever and D. Terence Langendoen characterized language competence in this way, “A person knows how to carry out three kinds of activities with his language: He can produce sentences, he can understand sentences, and he can make judgments about potential sentences” (Stockwell & Macaulay, 1972, p. 32). In the previous comment, there is the singular concentration on the role of the sentence. In formal linguistic research, the sentence has been the central grammatical vehicle through which characteristics of language are identified. Although all languages are the subject of study, it is particularly in English and many other SVO languages (i.e., subject-verb-object sentence ordered) that the sentence has provided a foundation for analyses.

Formal linguists who are designated as psycholinguists have long held that designing research at levels of discourse beyond the sentence is especially unwieldy, and it may be difficult to resolve a hypothesis with absolute certainty. One psychologist, who demonstrated this point in his work regarding the interpretation of written texts in the 1980s through the 21st century, is Karl Haberlandt, a scholar in the field of memory and cognition.

The previous discussion requires a clarification about the definition of sentence. Formal linguistics looks at the syntax of sentences and the rules by which the grammar of a language allows for the order of words in sentences. For example, English transitive sentences commonly follow the order [s]ubject, [v]erb, [o]bject, but there may be variations of this order that are acceptable in English conversation. French follows a SVO pattern but is SOV when personal pronouns are used (e.g., Je t’aime, “I you love”). Consider also the ordering of adjectives in English, for example, three enormous green avocados versus green enormous three avocados.

Although not a member of any of the subfields of linguistics yet mentioned here, Richard Montague is a linguist known for his attempts to quantify language by matching the logic of set theory to characterizing the semantics of sentences. Although his life was a short one, his legacy of Montague grammar remains to challenge those who respect formal linguistics and considerations of the ordering of language.

The second area of focus from which we might posit definitions of language is that of functionalism. Individuals who are involved in this particular area propose theories of language use that may or may not allow for grammatical connections. Van Valin classifies the functional linguists as extreme, moderate, or conservative. Those who are in the first category do not admit to any use for grammatical (i.e., syntactic) analysis in their studies. To them, all language study is necessarily at the level of discourse, and observations of language grammar are restricted to the discourse. Those who are conservative functional linguists study language by adding on language use components to formal linguistic grammars. They keep the syntactic structures as the main part of the design of their research and amend them with discourse rules. Susumu Kuno is a well-known functional linguist who proposed a functional sentence perspective that guided a part of his research at Harvard University.

Moderate functional linguistics is especially represented by the work of M. A. K. Halliday. This subfield of linguistics is particularly appealing to anthropologists since it encourages comparative studies of communication and discourse without completely discounting the need for reference to grammatical theories. Moderate formal linguistics includes the consideration of semantics and pragmatics within the analysis of spoken human discourse. Dell Hymes (1996), credited with naming the linguistic subfield of anthropological linguistics, commented on the nature of language and provided a functionalist perspective of grammar in which he criticized Chomskian theories of formal generative grammar. This perspective demonstrates the thinking of the moderate functional linguist:

The heart of the matter is this. A dominant conception of the goals of “linguistic theory” encourages one to think of language exclusively in terms of the vast potentiality of formal grammar, and to think of that potentiality exclusively in terms of universality. But a perspective which treats language only as an attribute is unintelligible. In actuality language is in large part what users have made of it. (Hymes, 1996, p. 26)

One important functional linguist and anthropologist who had studied under Boas, and whose work was particularly vital in the latter half of the 20th century, is Joseph Greenberg (1915–2001). He is credited with providing the first thorough classification of African languages. Greenberg looked for language universals through language performance, rather than through formalistic analyses such as those of Chomsky. Since his work resulted in characterizing languages in this way, Greenberg is also mentioned in discussions of typological universal grammar.

Classification of Human Languages

The classification and categorization of human languages is particularly complex. First, there is the complexity derived from the theories and definitions of the linguists who are influenced by their own subfields of linguistics. Second, there is the complex weave among the topics of language evolution, language modification and change, and language death that in some respects is an uncompleted textile, metaphorically speaking. Each of these areas is connected to the other in simple and intricate ways, and they continue to enkindle disagreements among researchers who want to classify languages. When, why, and how does/did language evolution occur? What are the causes and correlates of language change? Are there any simple reasons why languages die? How do languages differ regarding interpretation and communication both between and among cultures?

In the last quarter of the 20th century, it became somewhat clear that no one subfield of linguistics could provide full answers to those questions that concern the classification of languages. Thus, some linguists have joined forces with individuals who have opposing views from their own or who are experts in allied fields. For example, anthropological linguists do well to partner with formal linguists, neurolinguists, and archaeologists to search for the origins of spoken language. Researchers such as Marc Hauser, Noam Chomsky, Morten Christensen, and Simon Kirby have commented on the need for cross-collaborative efforts to study the evolution of language and languages, and they have been collaborative themselves.

Philologists who, for the most part, were later to be known as comparative philologists and, subsequently, comparative linguists, started out with questions concerning spoken languages and their origins. One of their main areas of inquiry was guided by material gleaned from artifacts that survived from ancient civilizations; most of these included writings and monuments from the Sumerian civilization dating between 5000 and 2000 BCE. Researchers hypothesized about modes of spoken language by evaluating ancient patterns of writing, that is, by separating out demarcations from other elements of what might be a grammar. They also strove to classify spoken languages by documenting those that occurred in various parts of the world, creating models of word structures and grammars as well as looking for consistency and similarities from one geographical area to another. This kind of work, of the philologists and comparative linguists, was, however, once limited by the Societé de Linguistique de Paris in 1866 as a response to the proliferation of ill-conceived explorations into the evolution of language prompted by the publication of Darwin’s On the Origin of Species. It was not until the last decade of the 20th century that research on the origins and evolution of languages had a resurgence among a new breed of anthropological linguists, who were not at all like their comparative linguist predecessors, as well as among teams of researchers from fields such as computer science, neurology, biology, and formal linguistics. Though still using theories derived from formal linguists, new paradigms for research included language competence and communication theories.

In 1997, Philip Parker produced a statistical analysis of over 460 language groups in 234 countries, showing the connections between linguist cultures and life issues in their societies (e.g., economics, resources that defined cultures, and demography). He used variables such as the availability of water, transportation, and means for communication to see patterns regarding the development of nations, especially in third world countries. Parker’s work can be studied to understand the difficulties involved in trying to classify languages as well as in identifying new languages or finding those that are going extinct.

Those who identify themselves as sociolinguists are concerned with the study of how individuals use language to be understood within particular communication contexts. This includes research about sports, courts of law, teen talk, conversations between individuals of the same or different genders, and even ITM (instant text messaging). Sociolinguists primarily concentrate on spoken languages or on gestural languages, such as American Sign Language. However, several scholars have become curious about written languages, especially about literacy. Rather than using formal linguistics, as did the structural linguists, sociolinguists use observations about the human condition, human situations, and ethnographic data to understand language. When their research includes formal linguistic analyses, it is to demonstrate language interpretations and comparisons of language use within particular social contexts.

Sociolinguists are well acquainted with the theories of Saussure. Although Saussure was only 2 years old when Darwin wrote On the Origin of the Species (1859), linguists in the early 20th century have remarked that Saussure showed an awareness of Darwin’s ideas in his lectures on language change and evolution. At that time, those linguists who were concerned with anthropology or language growth and language interactions within societies more than with the formal characterization of languages attended to linguistic performance rather than to linguistic competence. This was the period of structural and comparative linguistics. Until the early 1950s, the term sociolinguist was not used. In the following two decades, researchers were involved in what now is commonly identified as sociolinguistic studies, but these individuals were not fully recognized within the subfield of linguistics called sociolinguistics until well into the 1970s.

Sociolinguists are especially concerned with the processes involved in language use in societies. Their research designs are commonly ethnographic. Dell Hymes has been identified as the father of the ethnography of communication approach used in sociolinguistic research. As an anthropologist, Hymes observed that those in his field and those in linguistics needed to combine theoretical dispositions to fill in the gaps in each other’s research. He saw that the legacy of Boas resulted in many anthropologists thinking about the use of linguistics in their work only at the level of a tool as Agar has interpreted it. Hymes also saw that linguists were focusing on what he thought was too much formalism. An ethnography of speaking would enable those in each field to get a fuller picture of the language processes used by individuals, as well as reasons for their use, processes that are associated with one of a variety of social constructs—politeness behaviors, courts of law, and the deference to the elderly.

Deborah Tannen’s research, concerning gender differences in conversations in the United States in the 1980s, involved the use of video to compare the conversational behaviors of children, teens, and adults who were paired by gender and put into a room for a short time with only their partners. Her work has added much to understanding the effects of communication behaviors, by environment and human nature, along the continuum to adulthood. Although Tannen could have dissected her subjects’ conversations using formal grammatical methods, she was much better able to answer her research questions by analyzing the processes, both verbal and nonverbal, that they used. In fact, the nonverbal behaviors were especially revealing.

Tannen’s previous research had prepared her for her gender comparison study. In one early piece of research, she participated as a collaborator with several other linguists to observe and subsequently characterize differences in verbal interpretations of a film by individuals from several nations around the world. This led to the publication in 1980 of The Pear Stories, edited by Wallace Chafe. Tannen compared the narratives of Athenian Greeks to those of American English speakers and concluded that the style and form of interpretations vary according to how people of a given culture adopt the conventionalization of rhetorical forms used in their culture. She supports her claims with research from sociolinguists John Gumperz and Dell Hymes. Her comments about cultural stereotypes in this early study are one reason that this work should be reread in the 21st century, especially by political scientists and those concerned about cultural misunderstandings derived from translations between the languages of two nations, particularly when the conversations have consequences for peace between these nations:

The cultural differences which have emerged in the present study constitute real differences in habitual ways of talking which operate in actual interaction and create impressions on listeners—the intended impression, very likely, on listeners from the same culture, but possibly confused or misguided impressions on listeners from other cultures. It is easy to see how stereotypes may be created and reinforced. Considering the differences in oral narrative strategies found in the pear narratives, it is not surprising that Americans might develop the impression that Greeks are romantic and irrational, and Greeks might conclude thatAmericans are cold and lacking in human feelings. (Tannen, 1980, p. 88)

The concept of language mixtures is one that has been identified through sociolinguistic research. It includes areas of oral communication accommodation between people who speak different native languages as well as the use of new “half-languages,” as McWhorter calls them—that is, pidgins and creoles. As people migrate, voluntarily or as a consequence of a historical situation (e.g., the great potato famine, the slave trade), they have a need, to a greater or lesser extent, to communicate with those who do not speak their language. For example, the United States experienced large waves of immigration from the mid1800s to the 1920s. As these new Americans populated cities on the East Coast and continued to settle throughout the United States, they maintained their original cultures in ethnic neighborhoods and were comfortable speaking their native languages. Schools accommodated these immigrants, providing instruction in English as well as in dominant European languages. Across the neighborhoods, individuals tried to communicate for economic reasons and for socialization. Sometimes, the elderly preferred to speak only their mother tongue, even insisting that their children or grandchildren do so whenever in their presence. Regardless, these new citizens created what linguists call an interlanguage, which includes words and expressions from both the new language and their mother tongues.

Interlanguage is defined in one of two ways. It may be that an individual creates or mixes terms between the native language and the target language. A Polish immigrant might use an expression such as “Ja be˛de˛ is´ do marku” (“I will go to the market”), substituting the first syllable of the English word, market, in the Polish word, rynku, and retaining the final syllable of the Polish word. ( Rynku is the Polish word for market.)

A second way that interlanguage occurs is in situations where each individual in a conversation uses clever verbal manipulations. It may be that the speaker imposes the syntax of the native language on the order of words in the new language. For example, Larry Selinker, an expert in interlanguage, gives an example where an Israeli says, “I bought downtown the postcard.”

As individuals become bilingual, they will switch between the two languages in their attempts to be understood or to clarify for the listener what they mean. This behavior is called code-switching, and over time, individuals who are in constant communication may create new words and expressions that possess characteristics of each or both languages.

Studies of interlanguage and code-switching provide information regarding the development of new languages but especially new words. Researchers such as Joshua Fishman have observed a special form of language mixture that evolves slowly within speech communities—that is, groups or societies that use one variety of their native language. An example of this situation, called diglossia, is a language vernacular. Some languages have one formal language variety and one or more informal ones. Vernaculars are often called the “common language” of the people. What is very interesting about diglossia is that in some places in the world, as in some parts of Africa, two speech communities may live side by side and never mix. Speakers of one language will continue to use their mother tongue when addressing individuals who speak another language. Yet the latter will understand the former but never adopt any of the morphology, phonology, or grammar of those speakers.

Pidgins are formed when speakers of one language interact with those of a second language for particular purposes. As with language mixtures, they are called contact languages, and for the most part, they developed during the colonial periods when European traders sailed to countries in Africa, as well as to South America, and to islands in one of the great oceans. However, pidgins may arise anytime speakers of two languages have a particular need to communicate. They are characterized by a mixture of words from each language (e.g., French and Eˇwé, an official language of Togo) in a somewhat “abbreviated” kind of grammar. Frequently, pidgin languages die out as individuals become bilingual or if there is no longer a need for communication between speakers of each natural language. Many pidgin languages that prevail become regularized from one generation to the subsequent one, and they take on well-defined morphological and syntactic rules. When this happens, they are then called creole languages. McWhorter observes that, just as natural languages may occur in one of several varieties, creoles, too, may have more than one variety. Creoles often have the same generative properties as natural languages. One very well studied creole language is Tok Pisin of Papua, New Guinea. It is estimated that between 4 and 6 million people speak it.

Linguistic studies regarding language mixtures, including pidgins and creoles, have been a source of valuable information to historians and geographers as well as to anthropologists and sociologists. Besides gaining an understanding about more recent history, especially the colonial eras and migrations in modern times, researchers have been able to hypothesize about the structures of and changes in societies where there has been contact with groups from countries and nations distant from themselves. Those linguists who promote theories of linguistic relativism are able to better understand the effects of language change brought on by social interactions among peoples from different parts of the world. As moderate functionalists, they are also able to evaluate language use by integrating generative functional linguistics into their evaluations.

An edited text by Joseph, DeStephano, Jacobs, and Lehiste (2003) draws on research that is particularly important to sociolinguistic studies—that is, the nature and relationship of languages that may or may not share the same cultural space. In When Languages Collide: Perspectives on Language Conflict, Language Competition, and Language Coexistence, linguists from diverse subfields share essays regarding, as the editors say, “a variety of language-related problems that affect real people in real situations.” Although each one represents the views and perspectives of particular researchers, taken together, they give a powerful message showing that the complexities of language and languages are entities that are indicative of the complexities of human behavior and the structure of societies.

As is the case with so many texts in the subfield of sociolinguistics, When Languages Collide permits much reflection on the multiple roles of language through the paradigms of both formalism and functionalism. It especially provides thought regarding language endangerment and societal change. Among the topics discussed are language ideologies (i.e., the role of governments in determining language use), language resurgence (e.g., increased speakers in the Navajo nation), and language endangerment. Joshua Fishman, an eminent sociolinguist, expounds on the growth of literacy and the political structures of society. His chapter is especially intriguing since most of his other research involves studies of spoken language. Julie Auger describes the growth of literacy among people in the border areas of Belgium and northwestern France. In this area, a fragile language, Picard, has a growing literary tradition in spite of the fact that few individuals speak it.

Just as there has been a resurgence in studies about the classification of existing languages and cultures, there have also been linguists and anthropologists who have tried to understand the reasons for language endangerment and the extinction of languages. They have attempted to keep records about endangered languages, looking at linguistic structures and geographic areas where endangerment predominates. David Crystal, considered one of the world’s foremost experts on language, has compiled research about the language survival situation and reasons for language extinction. In Language Death, Crystal (2000) gave calculations that show that in 100 years between 25% and 80% of the world’s languages will be extinct. As of 2005, the actual number count of known languages (spoken and signed) was estimated as 6,912. Thus, approximately 1,728 languages, as a lower estimate, could be extinct by the year 2105. He states that currently 96% of the world’s population speaks only 4% of existing languages.

Research about language death is a relatively new pursuit. Just as societies have become concerned with ecology, global warming, and survival, they are becoming more aware of the case of linguistic ecology. There currently exists an International Clearing House for Endangered Languages at the University of Tokyo and an Endangered Language Fund in the United States. A new subfield of linguistics, ecolinguistics, has been designated for concentration on issues of language diversity and language death.

Reasons for extinction include the lessening of the numbers of peoples who speak the language, as in Northern (Tundra) Yukaghir, Russia, as well as language assimilation into a language that predominates in a geographic area. Only around 120 individuals in Northern Yukaghir speak the indigenous language of the villages. It is believed that this language is at least 8,000 years old. All of the community of 1,100 people can speak a second language, Yakut, which is the name of the Russian republic in which they live. The two indigenous languages are spoken by the elderly at home. In Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Gordon (2005) noted that these people have no ethnic identity due to their assimilation with other groups in the area, such as theYakuts and the Evens.Yet the NorthernYukaghirs do share cultural bonds as explained in the research of Elena Maslova, a formal linguist.

Salikoko Mufwene has summarized the work of linguists, such as David Crystal and Jean Aitchison, regarding language death, decay, murder, and suicide. He also has conjectured about the possibilities for language persistence and language ecology. To do so, Mufwene looks to the social dimensions of language characterization as he has researched it within the subfield of sociolinguistics. He, like other linguists who are concerned about societies and cultures, takes a historical perspective and includes questions and answers from work on migration and colonization in particular areas of the world (e.g., Sub-Saharan Africa). His research adds a special dimension to the subfield of sociolinguistics, which he calls sociohistorical linguistics.

Psycholinguistics is a subfield of linguistics in which researchers study psychological processes involved in language development and use. The primary focus for the psycholinguist is language behavior, and this may include studies of memory, cognition, speech processing, auditory processing, and reading. This subfield, just as sociolinguistics, is a relatively young one. From the late 20th century to the early 21st century, there has been an exponential growth in the number of psycholinguistic studies concerned with cognition and language processing. What is particularly interesting about this field is its focus on the individual as a speaker, writer, and thinker.

Members of the subfield of psycholinguistics are typically identified within the field of psychology and to some extent in educational psychology. Since a primary goal is to understand connections between the mind and language, there appears to be much more collaboration of psycholinguists with others in allied fields than there is among other subfields of linguistics. Perhaps this collaborative nature exists because a large body of psycholinguistic research has to do with language acquisition. Those involved in developmental psycholinguistics have provided a wealth of research regarding language learning in infants and children, cross-linguistic issues in language development, and correlates of brain development and language maturation.

Although most psycholinguists follow the theories of formalism, many may be identified as functionalists. This is especially true among developmental psycholinguists who study child discourse, bilingualism, and language education. Since psycholinguists have a proclivity for collaboration, researchers who are in fields of applied linguistics (i.e., fields that study language use in a variety of situations) tend to be collaborators with psycholinguists and educational psychologists. For example, Evelyn Hatch, a researcher in second-language learning and discourse, uses a variety of research theories that relate to the theory of knowledge known as constructivism. Annette KarmiloffSmith, who did much early work on children’s narrative interpretations, focuses on the fields of developmental psychology and neuroscience. It has been stated elsewhere that Daniel Slobin’s contributions in developmental psycholinguistics have enabled the field of linguistics in general to understand language acquisition among children in nations that represent a range of spoken language families.

Other concerns of psycholinguists have to do with language perception and language processing. A correlate of these areas is that of forensic linguistics, a growing subfield that has, as one of its areas of focus, the study of language interpretation and expression in matters of the law and crime. Knowledge of the use of memory and language perception is important to forensic linguists, and they are able to draw from the larger subfield of psycholinguistics for their own research.

Language Identification and Tools of Linguistic Studies

The large family of linguists includes those who are driven to research using formal theories and those who are motivated by paradigms of functionalism. At one end of the spectrum are the conservative formal linguists, whose interests are in how the mind uses language and the identification and description of universal principles of grammar, as well as those that are unique to every language group. At the other end of the spectrum are the extreme functionalists, whose work is to uncover meaning in the conversations (verbal discourse) of individuals and to see deductively what is similar and what is different in the language use of peoples. Some linguists look at their research through the lens of the historian or anthropologist; others look through the lens of computational models, as these models are able to mimic natural language. And others take a route of applied linguistics to bring research down to a utilitarian level, as in forensic psychology and in psycholinguistics as a component of educational psychology.

Researchers may be especially concerned about the actual language or languages for study, or they may be more concerned with the individuals in societies and the conditions of their lives that are determined by their language or languages. Whether a sociolinguist or a computational linguist, the resources used in linguistics include words, sentences, conversations, gestures, body language, writings, and a range of nonverbal signals. Linguists separate and manipulate these resources in the main categories of phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics. These categories apply to analyses of spoken language as well as signed languages, of which there are 119 known throughout the world. Of these, American Sign Language (ASL) is most studied by formal linguists, as well as sociolinguists and other functional linguists.

Languages are also delineated as natural or contrived. Simply put, a natural language is any human language that has developed naturally over time. Invented languages are not a significant area of study by linguists, although this area can be of value regarding computer paradigms. Computational linguists and those involved in the field of artificial intelligence study natural languages and try to figure out how to simulate these in computer technology.

There are many linguists who believe that a research paper of Steven Pinker and Paul Bloom (1990), “Natural Language and Natural Language Selection,” was the main driving force for the spread of legitimate studies about language evolution into the 21st century. As stated previously, there had been a moratorium on this area of research imposed by the Societé de Linguistique de Paris in 1866 due to an unwieldy number of studies of questionable integrity that arose after the 1859 publication of Darwin’s On the Origin of Species.

Phonology refers to the sound system of a language. Descriptive linguistics, during the time of the structural linguists, provided a large body of information regarding the articulation of speech, the classification of speech sounds in natural languages around the world, and the characterization of the brain areas in which receptive and expressive language originate and function. Regarding ASL, linguists only began to characterize phonology (which involves facial expression and physical involvement other than the hands) in the latter half of the 1900s, especially after ASL was acknowledged as a real language.

Through linguistic studies in the early 20th century to the present, there has been much research in developmental linguistics regarding language acquisition and the growth of language as it occurs contrastively in the speech development of infants and children throughout the world. Slobin’s research, comparing the expressive language of children in countries where languages belong to different language families (e.g., Turkish, Korean, Estonian, English), has proven invaluable for further studies of language acquisition. For example, he observed that initially all infants babble similar sounds, but those that are not common in the speech of a particular language drop off and are “forgotten” as the infant says his or her first words generally around the age of 12 months.

Research on the history of the phonology of languages, such as that of John McWhorter, provides a window into the possible ways that languages have changed as well as the development of new languages. McWhorter gives an example of the movement from Latin to French. In the Latin word for woman, femina (FEH-mee-nah), the accented syllable remains and the two weaker syllables are dropped as this word becomes femme (FAHM) in French. McWhorter comments that new words and languages develop with the “erosion” of sounds from the parent language to the new one.

Change in the phonology of languages is believed to be a very slow process, as is the modification of vocabulary forms. These precede changes in grammar. However, research by Atkinson, Meade, Vendetti, Greenhill, and Pagel (2008) indicates that there may be rapid bursts, which they call punctuational bursts, that occur at the beginning of the development of “fledgling languages” that may be derivatives of older languages. These characteristics are then followed by a period of slower development. The authors observed this in their studies of the languages of three language families and hypothesized that it holds for phonology, morphology, and syntax.

Anthropological linguists are especially curious about the studies of phonology to find out when humans first began to speak. Biologists as well have proposed theories based on the findings of archaeologists and paleontologists regarding the evolution of humans. Although there is evidence from fossils that the anatomical parts for speech were in place 150,000 years ago, scientists question when vocalization was cultivated for the use of communication. Even though the physical structures were available in the middle Paleolithic era, archaeological evidence of social organization suggests that the liberal use of speech and verbal language might have more reasonably started around 40,000 years ago during the Upper Paleolithic explosion.

One of the reasons that linguists from several subfields might find it worthwhile to collaborate with other researchers—particularly those in speech perception, audiology, neuroscience, and computational linguistics—is that each has expertise regarding different aspects of phonology. One possible goal of the collaboration might be to enable applications of new knowledge about phonology to support the development of instrumentation or technology to fulfill a medical or engineering purpose. For example, the development of the cochlear implant by individuals such as Graeme Clark involved a team of experts from 10 fields, including electronic and communication engineering, speech processing, speech science, and psychophysics.

Morphology is a branch of grammar that describes the combination of sounds into words, the development of the lexicon of a language. As with phonology, morphology is rule driven. Crystal (1985) explained that there are two divisions of morphology, inflectional morphology and derivational morphology. The study of the structure of words is especially interesting since they are representations of actual entities in a language that involve meaning. Early structural linguists were able to look at the use of words and the growth of language lexicons in order to situate them within the grammar of a language. For example, Boas, in his Handbook of American Indian Languages (1911), called attention to the way that Eskimos (Aleuts) take a single root word and combine it with other morphological components to designate different words for snow according to their unique experience of it in Alaska. This point has frequently been discussed by others, including Benjamin Whorf, who used it to support his theory of linguistic relativism.

In generative linguistics, morphology and syntax are considered central foci for grammar. Crystal explains that the same syntactic rules apply to the structure of words, as well as they do to phrases and sentences.

Sometimes, one may hear the comment, “I don’t have a word for that in my language.” And sometimes, it may take more than a single word to describe a concept captured in another language by a single word. As with the example above regarding snow, linguists may argue for linguistic relativism using similar comments. What intrigues linguists is the way that words may represent degrees of meaning for an entity. For example, alternative verbs for walk give different impressions of movement in a conversation or text (e.g., strut, saunter, shuffle ) . Linguistic studies about conversations and word use provide information regarding the growth of languages and language change, even at the level of morphological analysis.

Wierzbecka explains that polysemous words (i.e., words that have many meanings) are a special case for the study of languages. It is not that there may not be an equivalent word in one language available in another but that a particular usage of the word is not permitted. She gives the example of the word freedom, comparing it in five languages. In English, freedom can be used in the context of freedom from (interruption), freedom to (speak), and freedom of (choice). In Polish, the word wolno´sc´ is used to represent moral and political issues, matters of life and death. Unlike English, it cannot be used in a context such as freedom of access, freedom of movement. It can, however, be used as freedom of conscience.

Syntax refers to the grammar of a language. The study of syntax involves knowledge of the rules that govern the ways that words combine to achieve meaning in a given language. It is at the level of syntax that so much of the work of linguistics has been especially important. Whether in formal or functional paradigms, linguists have concentrated on the sentence and on syntax as primary characteristics that separate humans from the rest of the animal world. The work of Chomsky has contributed not only to the formal understanding of language structure but also to the enabling of researchers to understand something that makes humans special. Belletti and Rizzi (2002) stated it this way:

The critical formal contribution of early generative grammar was to show that the regularity and unboundedness of natural language syntax were expressible by precise grammatical models endowed with recursive procedures. Knowing a language amounts to tacitly possessing a recursive generative procedure. (p. 3)

Formal linguistics, as well as psycholinguistics, makes heavy use of syntactic and morphological structures in its research. There are several methodologies for syntactic, grammatical analysis. Besides those that are based on Chomsky’s generative transformational grammar, there are mathematical methods, such as that of Montague, and methods that probe universal grammar, such as that of optimality-theoretic syntax.

In the case of discourse analyses, those who might be considered conservative functionalists, using the definitions of Van Valin, sometimes combine methods—more of a formal approach to observations of syntax in conversational discourse.

Semantics refers to the study of meaning. Pragmatics refers to the connections between specific contexts and meaning. Although these two are specific areas of linguistics, together they have provided for theories of understanding and human cognition.

The field of semantics has been especially important to modern language philosophy and logic. Philosophers such as Rudolf Carnap (1891–1970) and W. V. O. Quine (1908–2000) delved into language philosophy with consequences for those studying artificial intelligence. Quine, in particular, explored the works of Chomsky and formalism in an attempt to verify his own direction regarding logic and language. Semantics also includes studies of speech acts and conversational implicature. John Searle, a prominent language philosopher who is identified with the free speech movement at Berkeley, has contributed greatly to speech act theory. This theory involves the search for meaning in what individuals say, and that requires further understanding of language contexts as well as linguistic culture. Conversational implicature is one component in speech act theory and has to do with particular conventions of speech in which there may be complicated underlying meanings. For example, a request at dinner, “Can you pass the salt?” does not require a yes/no answer but rather an acknowledgment in action by the guest. An understanding of speech act theory enables anthropological linguists to draw connections regarding the development of cultures as they observe commonalities in the use of language within particular cultural environments (e.g., traditions of rights of passage to adulthood and interactions in the marketplace).

Applications of meaning to grammar have practical consequences for computational linguists as well as for understanding political and other spoken and written discourse. Thus, those in the subfields of psycholinguistics and sociolinguistics have provided much evidence, regarding the role of semantics in a wide range of grammatical and conversational contexts, among a wide number of diverse cultures around the world.

Concerns that have arisen due to linguistic and philosophical theories regarding semantics have to do with variations in both speaking and writing. Two of these areas are ambiguity and referencing. In many spoken languages, such as English, listeners accommodate much ambiguity in conversation. For example, sentences such as “Bill told John that he loved Mary” are well tolerated. Spatial relationships and nonverbal cues help listeners disambiguate referents in statements such as “Here it comes,” when contextualized within a situation such as a baseball flying into the spectator section of a ballpark.

Pragmatics plays an important role regarding semantic interpretation. Subfields in both formal linguistics and functional linguistics concentrate on identifying and interpreting the meaning of statements as they are applied to the real world. Areas of speech acts, conversational implicature, ambiguity, and referencing all involve consideration of real-world contexts. For example, a sentence such as the following is usually understood because of an individual’s prior knowledge of how the world works: “Sarah pulled the rug next to the chair and then sat on it.” In this sentence, a psychological principle known as parallel processing influences the listener’s determination of the referent for the pronoun it. One wants to match the rug as the referent; however, pragmatically speaking, it appears more sensible to choose the chair.

Studies of meaning in linguistics, whether at the philosophical level or that of human culture and society, involve each of the areas of phonology, morphology, and syntax to greater and lesser extents. Although these areas are often dealt with separately in research, they also may be used in one of several combinations or pairings.

It is particularly important for those in the field of anthropology to recognize and understand a wide range of linguistic theories in order to support their investigations and the works of cultures and societies. Rather than considering linguistics as an ancillary tool for research, as was the case with Boas, the new anthropologists of the 21st century need to consider the constitutive nature of language to humanity. The range of characteristics that constitute the matter of linguistics is so broad, however, that researchers of necessity need to collaborate in order to address their particular questions. Further study of the involvement of linguistics in the field of anthropology will require of the individual much reading in subfields, such as those described in this research paper.

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Ideas: Language technologies for everyone with Kalika Bali

Published April 11, 2024

By Kalika Bali , Principal Researcher Gretchen Huizinga , Executive Producer and Host of the Microsoft Research Podcast

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Microsoft Research Podcast | Ideas | Kalika Bali

Behind every emerging technology is a great idea propelling it forward. In the new Microsoft Research Podcast series, Ideas , members of the research community at Microsoft discuss the beliefs that animate their research, the experiences and thinkers that inform it, and the positive human impact it targets.

In this episode, host Gretchen Huizinga talks with Principal Researcher Kalika Bali. Inspired by an early vision of “talking computers” and a subsequent career in linguistics, Bali has spent the last two decades bringing the two together. Aided by recent advances in large language models and motivated by her belief that everyone should have access to AI in their own language, Bali and her teams are building language technology applications that they hope will bring the benefits of generative AI to under-resourced and underserved language communities around the world.

Learn more:

The State and Fate of Linguistic Diversity and Inclusion in the NLP World Publication, July 2020
Project VeLLM Project page
Kahani: Visual Storytelling Project page
Kahani: Visual Storytelling through Culturally Nuanced Images Microsoft Research Forum | Episode 1, January 2024
Teachers in India help Microsoft Research design AI tool for creating great classroom content Microsoft Research blog, October 2023
Digital Labor: Project Karya Project page
Village by village, creating the building blocks for AI tools with work that also educates (opens in new tab) Microsoft Source Asia blog, February 2024

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Transcript

[TEASER]

[MUSIC PLAYS UNDER DIALOGUE]

KALIKA BALI: I do think, in some sense, the pushback that I got for my idea makes me think it was outrageous. I didn’t think it was outrageous at all at that time! I thought it was a very reasonable idea! But there was a very solid pushback and not just from your colleagues. You know, for researchers, publishing papers is important! No one would publish a paper which focused only on, say, Indian languages or low-resource languages. We’ve come a very long way even in the research community on that, right. We kept pushing, pushing, pushing! And now there are tracks, there are workshops, there are conferences which are devoted to multilingual and low-resource languages.

[TEASER ENDS]

GRETCHEN HUIZINGA: You’re listening to Ideas , a Microsoft Research Podcast that dives deep into the world of technology research and the profound questions behind the code. I’m Dr. Gretchen Huizinga. In this series, we’ll explore the technologies that are shaping our future and the big ideas that propel them forward.

[MUSIC FADES]

I’m excited to be live in the booth today with Kalika Bali, a principal researcher at Microsoft Research India. Kalika is working on language technologies that she hopes will bring the benefits of generative AI to under-resourced and underserved language communities around the world. Kalika, it’s a pleasure to speak with you today. Welcome to Ideas !

KALIKA BALI: Thank you. Thank you, Gretchen. Thank you for having me.

HUIZINGA: So before we dive in on the big ideas behind Kalika Bali’s research, let’s talk about you for a second. Tell us about your “origin story,” as it were, and if there is one, what “big idea” or animating “what if?” captured your imagination and inspired you to do what you’re doing today?

BALI: So, you know, I’m a great reader. I started reading well before I was taught in school how to read, and I loved science fiction. I come from a family where reading was very much a part of our everyday lives. My dad was a journalist, and I had read a lot of science fiction growing up, and I also saw a lot of science fiction, you know, movies … Star Trek … everything that I could get hold of in India. And I remember watching 2001: Space Odyssey . And there was this HAL that spoke. He actually communicated that he was a computer. And I was just so struck by it. I was like, this is so cool! You know, here are computers that can talk! Now, how cool would that be if it would happen in real life? I was not at all aware of what was happening in speech technology, whether it was possible or not possible, but that’s something that really got me into it. I’ve always, like, kind of, been very curious about languages and how they work and, you know, how people use different things in languages to express not just meaning, not just communicating, but you know expressing themselves, really. And so I think it’s a combination of HAL and this curiosity I had about the various ways in which people use languages that got me into what I’m doing now.

HUIZINGA: OK. So that’s an interesting path, and I want to go into that just a little bit, but let me anchor this: how old were you when you saw this talking computer?

BALI: Oh, I was in my early teens.

HUIZINGA: OK. And so at that time, did you have any conception that … ?

BALI: No. You know, there weren’t computers around me when I was growing up. We saw, you know, some at school, you know, people coded in BASIC …

HUIZINGA: Right?

BALI: And we heard about them a lot, but I hadn’t seen one since I was in high school.

HUIZINGA: OK. So there’s this inception moment, an aha moment, of that little spark and then you kind of drifted away from the computer side of it, and what … tell us about how you went from there to that!

BALI: So that, that’s actually a very funny story because I actually wanted to study chemistry. I was really fascinated by how these, you know, molecular parts rotate around each other and, you know, we can’t even tell where an electron is, etc. It sounded, like, really fun and cool. So I actually studied chemistry, but then I was actually going to pick up the admission form for my sister, who wanted to study in this university, and … or, no, she wanted to take an exam for her master’s. And I went there. I picked up the form, and I said, this is a cool place. I would love to study here! And then I started looking at everything like, you know, what can I apply for here? And something called linguistics came up, and I had no idea what linguistics was. So I went to the British Library, got like a thin book on introduction to linguistics, and it sounded fun! And I took the exam. And then, as they say, that was history. Then I just got into it.

HUIZINGA: OK. I mean, so much has happened in between then and now, and I think we’ll kind of get there in … but I do want you to connect the larger dot from how you got from linguistics to Microsoft Research [LAUGHTER] as a computer scientist.

BALI: So I actually started teaching at the University of South Pacific as a linguistics faculty in Fiji. And I was very interested in acoustics of speech sounds, etc., etc. That’s what I was teaching. And then there was a speech company in Belgium that was looking to start some work in Indian languages, and they contacted me, and at that time, you needed people who knew about languages to build language technology, especially people who knew about phonetics, acoustics, for speech technology. And that’s how I got into it. And then, you know, I just went from startups to companies and then Microsoft Research, 18 years ago, almost 18 years ago.

HUIZINGA: Wow. OK. I would love to actually talk to you about all that time. But we don’t have time because I have a lot more things to talk to you about, technology -wise. But I do want to know, you know, how would you describe the ideas behind your overarching research philosophy, and who are your influences, as they say in the rock-and-roll world? [LAUGHTER] Who inspired you? Real-life person, scientist or not, besides, HAL 9000, who’s fictional, and any seminal papers that, sort of, got you interested in that along the way?

BALI: So since I was really into speech, Ken Stevens—who was a professor, who sadly is no longer with us anymore, at MIT—was a big influence. He, kind of, had this whole idea of how speech is produced. And, you know, the first time I was exposed to the whole idea of the mathematics behind the speech, and I think he influenced me a lot on the speech side of things. For the language side of things, you know, my professor in India Professor Anvita Abbi—you know, she’s a Padma Shri, like, she’s been awarded by the Indian government for her work in, you know, very obscure, endangered languages—you know, she kind of gave me a feel for what languages are, and why they are important, and why it’s important to save them and not let them die away.

HUIZINGA: Right.

BALI: So I think I would say both of them. But what really got me into wanting to work with Indian language technology in a big way was I was working in Belgium, I was working in London, and I saw the beginning of how technology is, kind of, you know, making things easier, exciting; there’s cool technology available for English, for French, for German … But in a country like India, it was more about giving access to people who have no access, right? It actually mattered, because here are people who may not be very literate and therefore not be able to use technology in the way we know it, but they can talk.

HUIZINGA: Right.

BALI: And they can speak, and they should be able to access technology by doing that.

HUIZINGA: Right. OK. So just real quickly, that was then. What have you seen change in that time, and how profoundly have the ideas evolved?

BALI: So just from pure methodology and what’s possible, you know, I have seen it all. When I started working in language technology, mainly for Indian languages, but even for other languages, it was all a rule -based system. So everybody had to create all these rules that then were, you know, responsible for building or like making that technology work. But then, just at that time, you know, all the statistical systems and methodologies came into being. So we had hidden Markov models, you know, doing their thing in speech, and it was all about a lot of data. But that data still had to be procured in a certain way, labeled, annotated. It was still a very long and resource-intensive process. Now, with generative AI, the thing that I am excited about is, we have a very powerful tool, right?

HUIZINGA: Mm-hmm.

BALI: And, yes, it requires a lot of data, but it can learn also; you know, we can fine-tune stuff on smaller datasets …

HUIZINGA: Yeah …

BALI: … to work for, you know, relevant things. So it’s not going to take me years and years and years to first procure the data, then have it tagged for part of speech … then, you know, have it tagged for sentiment, have it tagged for this, have it tagged for that, and then, only can I think of building anything.

BALI: So it just shortens that timeline so much, and it’s very exciting.

HUIZINGA: Right. As an ex-English teacher—which I don’t think there is such a thing as an ex-English teacher; you’re always silently correcting someone’s grammar! [LAUGHTER]—just what you said about tagging parts of speech as what they are, right? And that, I used to teach that. And then you start to think, how would you translate that for a machine? So fascinating. So, Kalika, you have said that your choice of career was accidental—and you’ve alluded to the, sort of, the fortuitous things that happened along the way—but that linguistics is one subject that goes from absolute science to absolute philosophy. Can you unpack that a little bit more and how this idea impacted your work in language technology?

BALI: Yeah. So, so if you think about it, you know, language has a physical aspect, right. We move our various speech organs in a certain way. Our ears are constructed in a certain way. There is a physics of it where, when I speak, there are sound waves, right, which are going into your ear, and that’s being interpreted. So, you know, if you think about that, that’s like an absolute science behind it, right? But then, when you come to the structure of language, you know, the syntax, like you’re an English teacher, so you know this really well, that you know, there’s semantics; there’s, you know, morphology, how our words form, how our sentences form. And that’s like a very abstract kind of method that allows us to put, you know, meaningful sentences out there, right?

HUIZINGA: Right …

BALI: But then there’s this other part of how language works in society, right. The way I talk to my mother would be probably very different to the way I’m talking to you, would be very different from the way I talk to my friends, at a very basic level, right? The way, in India, I would greet someone older to me would be very different from the way I would greet somebody here, because here it’s like much less formal and that, you know, age hierarchy is probably less? If I did the same thing in India, I would be considered the rudest creature ever. [LAUGHS] So … and then, you know, you go into the whole philosophy—psycholinguistics part. What happens in our brains, you know, when we are speaking? Because language is controlled by various parts of our brain, right. And then, you go to the pure philosophy part, like why? How does language even occur? Why do we name things the way we name things? You know, why do we have a language of thought? You know, what language are we thinking in? [LAUGHTER]

BALI: So, so it really does cover the entire gamut of language …

HUIZINGA: Yeah, yeah, yeah …

BALI: … like from science to philosophy.

HUIZINGA: Yeah, as I said before, when we were talking out there, my mother-in-law was from Holland, and every time she did math or adding, she would do it in Dutch, which—she’d be speaking in English and then she’d go over here and count in Dutch out loud. And it’s like, yeah, your brain switches back and forth. This is so exciting to me. I had no idea how much I would love this podcast! So, much of your research is centered on this big idea called “design thinking,” and it’s got a whole discipline in universities around the world. And you’ve talked about using something you call the 4D process for your work. Could you explain that process, and how it plays out in the research you do with the communities you serve?

BALI: Yeah, so we’ve kind of adapted this. My ex-colleague Monojit Choudhury and I, kind of, came up with this whole thing about 4D thinking, which is essentially discover , design , develop and deploy , right. And when we are working with, especially with, marginalized or low-resource-language communities, the very basic thing we have to do is discover, because we cannot go with, you know, our own ideas and perceptions about what is required. And I can give you a very good example of this, right. You know, most of us, as researchers and technologists, when we think of language technology, we are thinking about machine translation; we’re thinking about speech recognition; we are thinking about state-of-the-art technology. And here we were talking to a community that spoke the language Idu Mishmi, which is a very small community in northeast of India. And we were talking about, you know, we can do this, we can do that. And they just turned to us and said, what we really want is a mobile digital dictionary! [LAUGHS]

HUIZINGA: Wow. Yeah …

BALI: Right? And, you know, if you don’t talk, if you don’t observe, if you are not open to what the community’s needs might be, then you’ll miss that, right. You’ll miss the real thing that will make a difference to that community. So that’s the discover part. The design part, again, you have to design with the community. You cannot go and design a system that they are unable to use properly, right. And again, another very good example, one of the people I know, you know, he gave me this very good example of why you have to think, even at the architecture level when you’re designing such things, is like a lot of applications in India and around the world require your telephone number for verification. Now, for women, it might be a safety issue. They might not want to give their telephone number. Or in India, many women might not even have a telephone, like a mobile number, right. So how do you think of other ways in which they can verify, right? And so that’s the design part. The develop and the deploy part, kind of, go hand in hand, because I think it’s a very iterative process. You develop quickly, you put it out there, allow it to fail and, you know …

HUIZINGA: Mm-hmm. Iterate …

BALI: Iterate. So that’s like the, kind of, design thinking that we have.

HUIZINGA: Yeah, I see that happening in accessibility technology areas, too, as well as language …

BALI: Yeah, and, you know, working with the communities, very quickly, you become really humble.

HUIZINGA: Sure.

BALI: There’s a lot of humility in me now. Though I have progressed in my career and, you know, supposedly become wiser , I am much more humble about what I know and what I can do than I was when I started off, you know.

HUIZINGA: I love that. Well, one thing I want to talk to you about that has intrigued me, there’s a thing that happens in India where you mix languages …

HUIZINGA: You speak both Hindi and English at the same time, and you think, oh, you speak English, but it’s like, no, there’s words I don’t understand in that. What do you call that, and how did that drive your interest? I mean, that was kind of an early-on kind of thing in your work, right? Talk about that.

BALI: So that’s called code-mixing or code-switching. The only linguistic difference is code-mixing happens within a sentence, and code-switching means one sentence in one language and another.

HUIZINGA: Oh, really?

BALI: Yeah. So … but this is, like, not just India. This is a very, very common feature of multilingual societies all over the world. So it’s not multilingual individuals, but at the societal level, when you have multilingualism, then, you know, this is a marker of multilingualism. But code-mixing particularly means that you have to be fluent in both languages to actually code-mix, right. You have to have a certain amount of fluency in both languages. And there are various reasons why people do this. You know, it’s been studied by psychologists and linguists for a long time. And for most people like me, multilingual people, that’s the language we dream in, we think about. [LAUGHTER] That’s the language we talk to our siblings and friends in, right. And for us, it’s, like, just natural. We just keep …

HUIZINGA: Mixing …

BALI: … flipping between the two languages for a variety of reasons. We might do it for emphasis; we might do it for humor. We might just decide, OK, I’m going to pick this from this … the brain decides I’m going to pick this from this language …

HUIZINGA: Sure.

BALI: … and this … So the reason we got interested in, like, looking into code-mixing was that when we are saying that we want humans to be able to interact with machines in their most natural language, then by some estimates, half the world speaks like this!

BALI: So we have to be able to understand exactly how they speak and, you know, be able to process and understand their language, which is code-mixed …

HUIZINGA: Sure. Well, it seems like the human brain can pick this up and process it fairly quickly and easily, especially if it knows many languages. For a machine, it would be much more difficult?

BALI: It is. So initially, it was really difficult because, you know, the way we created systems was one language at a time …

HUIZINGA: Right!

BALI: … right. And it’s not about having an English engine and a Hindi engine available. It doesn’t work that way.

HUIZINGA: No!

BALI: So you’d really need something that, you know, is able to tackle the languages together. And in some theories, this is almost considered a language of its own because it’s not like you’re randomly mixing. There is a structure to …

HUIZINGA: Oh, is there?

BALI: Yeah. Where you can , where you can’t …

HUIZINGA: Gotcha.

BALI: You know, so there is a structure or grammar, you can say, of code-mixing. So we went after that. We, kind of, created tools which could generate grammatically viable code-mixed sentences given parallel data, etc.

HUIZINGA: That’s awesome. Amazing.

BALI: So, yeah, it takes effort to do it. But again, right now, because the generative AI models have at their disposal, you know, so many languages and at least, like, theoretically can work in many, many, many languages, you know, code-mixing might be an easier problem to solve right now.

HUIZINGA: Right. OK. So we’re talking mostly about widely used languages, and you’re very concerned right now on this idea of low-resource languages. So unpack what you mean by low- resource , and what’s missing from the communities that speak those languages?

BALI: Yeah. So when we say low-resource languages, we typically mean that languages do not have, say, digital resources, linguistic resources, language resources, that would enable technology building. It doesn’t mean that the communities themselves are impoverished in culture or linguistic richness, etc., right. But the reason why these communities do not have a lot of language resources, linguistic resources, digital resources, most of the time, it is because they are also marginalized in other ways … social and economic marginalization.

BALI: And these are … if you look at them, they’re not ti—I mean, of course, some of them are tiny, but when we say low-resource communities, we are talking about really big numbers.

BALI: Yeah. So one of the languages that I have worked with—language communities that I’ve worked with—speak a language called Gondi, which is like a Dravidian language that is spoken in … like a South Indian language that is spoken in north, central-north area. It’s a tribal language, and it’s got around three million speakers.

HUIZINGA: Oh, wow!

BALI: Yeah. That’s like more than Welsh, …

HUIZINGA: Yeah! [LAUGHS]

BALI: … right? But because socio-politically, they have been—or economically, they have been marginalized, they do not have the resources to build technologies. And, you know, when we say empower everyone and we only empower the top tier, I don’t think we fulfill our ambition to empower everyone. And like I said earlier, for these communities, all the technology that we have, digital tools that we have access to, they really matter for them. So, for example, you know, a lot of government schemes or the forest reserve laws are provided, say, in Hindi. If they are provided in Gondi, these people have a real idea of what they can do.

HUIZINGA: Yeah. … Sure.

BALI: Similarly, for education, you know, there are books and books and books in Hindi. There’s no book available for Gondi. So how is the next generation even going to learn the language?

BALI: And there are many, many languages which are low resource. In fact, you know, we did a study sometime in 2020, I think, we published this paper on linguistic diversity, and there we saw that, you know, we divided languages in five categories, and the top most which have all the resources to build every possible technology have only five languages, right. And more than half of the world’s languages are at the bottom. So it is a big problem.

HUIZINGA: Yeah. Let’s talk about some of the specific technologies you’re working on. And I want to go from platform to project because you’ve got a big idea in a platform you call VeLLM. Talk about that.

BALI: So VeLLM, which actually means jaggery—the sweet, sugary jaggery—in Tamil, one of the languages in India …

HUIZINGA: Let me, let me interject that it’s not vellum like the paper, or what you’re talking about. It’s capital V, little e, and then LLM, which stands for large language model?

BALI: So universal , the “V” comes from there. Empowerment, “e” comes from there. Through large language models …

HUIZINGA: Got it. OK. But you shortened it to VeLLM.

BALI: Yeah.

HUIZINGA: OK.

BALI: So, so the thing with VeLLM is that a bunch of us got together just when this whole GPT was released, etc. We have a very strong group that works on technologies for empowerment in the India lab, Microsoft Research India. And we got together to see what it is that we can do now that we have access to such a strong and powerful tool. And we started thinking of the work that we’ve been doing, which is to, you know, build these technologies for specific areas and specific languages, specific demographies. So we, kind of, put all that knowledge and all that experience we had and thought of like, how can we scale that, really, across everything that we do? So VeLLM, at its base, you know, takes a GPT-like LLM, you know, as a horizontal across everything. On top of it, we have again, horizontals of machine learning, of multilingual tools and processes, which allow us to take the outputs from, say, GPT-like things and adapt it to different languages or, you know, some different kind of domain, etc. And then we have verticals on top of it, which allow people to build specific applications.

HUIZINGA: Let me just go back and say GPT … I think most of our audience will know that that stands for generative pretrained transformer models. But just so we have that for anyone who doesn’t know, let’s anchor that. So VeLLM basically was an enabling platform …

BALI: Yes.

HUIZINGA: … on which to build specific technologies that would solve problems in a vertical application.

BALI: Yes. Yes. And because it’s a platform, we’re also working on tools that are needed across domains …

HUIZINGA: Oh, interesting.

BALI: … as well as tools that are needed for specific domains.

HUIZINGA: OK, so let’s talk about some of the specifics because we could get into the weeds on the tools that everybody needs, but I like the ideas that you’re working on and the specific needs that you’re meeting, the felt-need thing that gets an idea going. So talk about this project that you’ve worked on called Kahani. Could you explain what that is, and how it works? It’s really interesting to me.

BALI: So Kahani, actually, is about storytelling, culturally appropriate storytelling, with spectacular images, as well as like textual story.

HUIZINGA: So visual storytelling?

BALI: Visual storytelling with the text. So this actually started when my colleague Sameer Segal, he was trying to use generative AI to create stories for his daughter, and he discovered that, you know, things are not very culturally appropriate! So I’ll give an example that, you know, if you want to take Frozen and take it to, like, the south Indian state of Kerala, you’ll have the beaches of Kerala, you’ll have even have the coconut trees, but then you will have this blond princess in a princess gown …

HUIZINGA: Sure …

BALI: … who’s there, right? So that’s where we started discussing this, and we, kind of, started talking about, how can we create visuals that are anchored on text of a story that’s culturally appropriate? So when we’re talking about, say, Little Red Riding Hood , if we ask the generative AI model, OK, that I want the story of Little Red Riding Hood but in an Indian context, it does a fantastic job. It actually gives you a very nice story, which, you know, just reflects the Red Riding Hood story into an Indian context. But the images don’t really …

HUIZINGA: Match … [LAUGHTER]

BALI: … Match at all. So that’s where the whole Kahani thing started. And we did a hackathon project on it. And then a lot of people got interested. It’s an ongoing project, so I won’t say that it’s out there yet, but we are very excited about it, but because think of it, we can actually create stories for children, you know, which is what we started with, but we can create so much more media, so much more culturally appropriate storytelling, which is not necessarily targeted at children.

HUIZINGA: Yeah, yeah.

BALI: So that’s what Kahani is about.

HUIZINGA: OK. And I saw a demo of it that your colleague did for Research Forum here, and there was an image of a girl—it was beautiful—and then there was a mask of some kind or a … what was that?

BALI: So the mask is called Nazar Battu, which is actually, you have these masks which are supposed to drive away the evil eye. So that’s what the mask was about. It’s a very Indian thing. You know, when you build a nice house, you put one on top of it so that the envious glances are, like, kept at bay. So, yeah, so that’s what it was.

HUIZINGA: And was there some issue of the generative AI not really understanding what that was?

BALI: No, it didn’t understand what it was.

HUIZINGA: So then can you fix that and make it more culturally aware?

BALI: So that’s what we are trying to do for the image thing. So we have another project on culture awareness where we are looking at understanding how much generative AI knows about other cultures.

HUIZINGA: Interesting.

BALI: So that’s a simultaneous project that’s happening. But in Kahani, a lot of it is, like, trying to get reference images, you know …

HUIZINGA: Yeah. … Into the system?

BALI: Into the system …

HUIZINGA: Gotcha …

BALI: … and trying to anchor on that.

HUIZINGA: Mmmm. So—and we’re not going to talk about that project, I don’t think—but … how do you assess whether an AI knows? By just asking it? By prompting and seeing what happens?

BALI: Yeah, yeah, yeah. So in another project, what we did was, we asked humans to play a game to get cultural artifacts from them. The problem with asking humans what cultural artifacts are important to them is we don’t think of like things as culture, right. [LAUGHS] This is food!

HUIZINGA: It’s just who we are!

BALI: This is my food. Like, you know, it’s not a culturally important artifact. This is how I greet my parents. It’s not like culturally …

HUIZINGA: So it’s just like fish swimming in water. You don’t see the water.

BALI: Exactly. So we gamified this thing, and we were able to get certain cultural artifacts, and we tried to get generative AI models to tell us about the same artifacts. And it didn’t do too well … [LAUGHS]

HUIZINGA: But that’s why it’s research!

BALI: Yes!

HUIZINGA: You try, you iterate, you try again … cool. As I mentioned earlier, I was a high school English teacher and an English major. I’m not correcting your grammar because it’s fantastic.

BALI: Thank you.

HUIZINGA: But as a former educator, one of the projects I felt was really compelling that you’re working on is called Shiksha. It’s a copilot in education. Tell our audience about this.

BALI: So this is actually our proof of concept for the VeLLM platform. Since almost all of us were interested in education, we decided to go for education as the first use case that we’re going to work on. And actually, it was a considered decision to go target teachers instead of students. I mean, you must have seen a lot of work being done on taking generative AI to students, right. But we feel that, you know, teachers are necessary to teach because they’re not just giving you information about the subject. They’re giving you skills to learn , which hopefully will stay with you for a lifetime, right. And if we enable teachers, they will enable so many hundreds of students. One teacher can enable thousands of students, right, over her career. So instead of, like, going and targeting students, if we make it possible for teachers to do their jobs more effectively or, like, you know, help them get over the problems they have, then we are actually creating an ecosystem where things will scale really fast, really quickly. And in India, you know, this is especially true because the government has actually come up with some digital resources for teachers to use, but there’s a lot more that can be done. So we interviewed about a hundred-plus teachers across different parts of the country. And this is the, you know, discover part.

HUIZINGA: Yeah!

BALI: And we found out that lesson plans are a big headache! [LAUGHS]

HUIZINGA: Yes, they are! Can confirm!

BALI: Yeah. And they spend a lot of time doing lesson plans because they’re required to create a lesson plan for every class they teach …

HUIZINGA: Sure. With learning outcomes …

BALI: Exactly.

HUIZINGA: All of it.

BALI: All of it. So that’s where we, you know, zeroed in on—how to make it easier for teachers to create lesson plans. And that’s what the Shiksha project is about. You know, there is an enrollment process where the teachers say what subject they’re teaching, what classes they’re teaching, what boards, because there are different boards of education …

BALI: … which have different syllabus. So all that. But after that, it takes less than seven minutes for a teacher to create an entire lesson plan for a particular topic. You know, class assignments, class activities, home assignments, homework—everything! Like the whole thing in seven minutes! And these teachers have the ability to go and correct it. Like, it’s an interactive thing. So, you know, they might say, I think this activity is too difficult for my students.

BALI: Can I have, like, an easier one? Or, can I change this to this? So it allows them to interactively personalize, modify the plan that’s put out. And I find that really exciting. And we’ve tested this with the Sikshana Foundation, which works with teachers in India. We’ve tested this with them. The teachers are very excited and now Sikshana wants to scale it to other schools.

HUIZINGA: Right … well, my first question is, where were you when I was teaching, Kalika?

BALI: There was no generative AI!

HUIZINGA: No. In fact, we just discovered the fax machine when I started teaching. Oh, that dates me! You know, back to what you said about teachers being instrumental in the lives of their students. You know, we can remember our favorite teachers, our best teachers. We don’t remember a machine.

HUIZINGA: And what you’ve done with this is to embody the absolute sort of pinnacle of what AI can do, which is to be the collaborator, the assistant, the augmenter, and the helper so that the teacher can do that inspirational, connective-tissue job with the students without having to, like, sacrifice the rest of their life making lesson plans and grading papers. Oh, my gosh. OK. On the positive side, we’ve just talked about what this work proposes and how it’s good, but I always like to dig a little bit into the potential unintended consequences and what could possibly go wrong if, in fact, you got everything right. So I’ll anchor this in another example. When GPT models first came out, the first reaction came from educators. It feels like we’re in a bit of a paradigm shift like we were when the calculator and the internet even came out. [It’s] like, how do we process this? So I want to go philosophically here and talk about how you foresee us adopting and moving forward with generative AI in education, writ large.

BALI: Yeah, I think this is a question that troubles a lot of us and not just in education, but in all spheres that generative AI is …

HUIZINGA: Art …

BALI: … art …

HUIZINGA: … writing …

BALI: … writing …

HUIZINGA: … journalism …

BALI: Absolutely. And I think the way I, kind of, think about it in my head is it’s a tool. At the end of it, it is a tool. It’s a very powerful tool, but it is a tool , and humans must always have the agency over it. And we need to come up, as a society, you know, we need to come up with the norms of using the tool. And if you think about it, you know, internet, taking internet as an example, there is a lot of harm that internet has propagated, right. The darknet and all the other stuff that happens, right. But on the whole, there are regulations, but there are also an actual consensus around what constitutes the positive use of internet, right.

HUIZINGA: Sure, yeah.

BALI: Nobody says that, for example, deepfakes are …

HUIZINGA: Mm-hmm. Good …

BALI: … good, right. So we have to come from there and think about what kind of regulations we need to have in place, what kind of consensus we need to have in place, what’s missing.

HUIZINGA: Right. Another project that has been around, and it isn’t necessarily on top of VeLLM, but it’s called Karya, and you call it a social impact organization that serves not just one purpose, but three. Talk about that.

BALI: Oh, Karya is my favorite! [LAUGHS] So Karya started as a research project within Microsoft Research India, and this was the brainchild again of my colleague—I have like some of the most amazing colleagues, too, that I work with!—called Vivek Seshadri. And Vivek wanted to create, you know, digital work for people who do not have access to such work. So he wanted to go to the rural communities, to people who belong to slightly lower socioeconomic demographies, and provide work, like microtasks kind of work, gig work, to them . And he was doing this, and then we started talking, and I said, you know, we need so much data for all these languages and all these different tasks, and that could be, like, a really cool thing to try on Karya, and that’s where it all started, my involvement with Karya, which is still pretty strong. And Karya then became such a stable project that Microsoft Research India spun it out. So it’s now its own standalone startup right now like a social enterprise, and they work on providing digital work. They work on providing skills, like upskilling. They work on awareness, like, you know, making people aware of certain social, financial, other such trainings. So what’s been most amazing is that Karya has been able to essentially collect data for AI in the most ethical way possible. They pay their workers a little over the minimal wage. They also have something called data ownership practice , where the data that is created by, say, me, I have some sort of ownership on it. So what that means is that every time Karya sells a dataset, a royalty comes back …

HUIZINGA: No … !

BALI: Yeah! To the workers.

HUIZINGA: OK, we need to scale this out! [LAUGHS] OK. So to give a concrete example, the three purposes would be educational, financial—on their end—and data collection, which would ultimately support a low-resource language by having digital assets.

BALI: Absolutely!

HUIZINGA: So you could give somebody something to read in their language …

HUIZINGA: … that would educate them in the process. They would get paid to do it, and then you would have this data.

HUIZINGA: OK. So cool. So simple.

BALI: Like I said, it’s my favorite project.

HUIZINGA: I get that. I totally get that.

BALI: And they … they’ve been, you know, they have been winning awards and things all over for the work that they’re doing right now. And I am very involved in one project with them, which is to do with gender-intentional AI, or gender-intentional datasets for AI, for Indian languages. And that’s really crucial because, you know, we talk about gender bias in datasets, etc., but all that understanding comes from a very Western perspective and for languages like English, etc. They do not translate very well to Indian languages.

BALI: And in this particular project, we’re looking at first, how to define gender bias. How do we even get data around gender bias? What does it even mean to say that technology is gender intentional?

HUIZINGA: Right. All right, well, let’s talk a little bit about what I like to call outrageous ideas. And these are the ones that, you know, on the research spectrum from sort of really practical applied research to blue sky get dismissed or viewed as unrealistic or unattainable. So years ago—here’s a little story about you—when you told your tech colleagues that you wanted to work with the world’s most marginalized languages, they told you you’d only marginalize yourself.

HUIZINGA: But you didn’t say no. You didn’t say no. Um, two questions. Did you feel like your own idea was outrageous back then? And do you still have anything outrageous yet to accomplish in this plan?

BALI: Oh, yeah! I hope so! Yeah. No, I do think, in some sense, the pushback that I got for my idea makes me think it was outrageous. I didn’t think it was outrageous at all at that time! [LAUGHS] I thought it was a very reasonable idea! But there was a very solid pushback and not just from your colleagues. You know, for researchers, publishing papers is important! No one would publish a paper which focused only on, say, Indian languages or low-resource languages. We’ve come a very long way even in the research community on that, right. We kept pushing, pushing, pushing! And now, there are tracks, there are workshops, there are conferences which are devoted to multilingual and low-resource languages. When I said I wanted to work on Hindi, and Hindi is the biggest language in India, right. And even for that, I was told, why don’t you work on German instead? And I’m like, there are lots of people working on German who will solve the problems with German! Nobody is looking at Hindi! I mean, people should work on all the languages. People should work on German, but I don’t want to work on German! So there was a lot of pushback back then, and I see a little bit of that with the very low-resource languages even now. And I think some people think it’s a “feel-good” thing, whereas I think it’s not. I think it’s a very economically viable, necessary thing to build technology for these communities, for these languages. No one thought Hindi was economically viable 15 years ago, for whatever reason …

HUIZINGA: That … that floors me …

BALI: Yeah, but, you know, we’re not talking about tens of thousands of people in some of these languages; we’re talking about millions.

HUIZINGA: Yeah.

BALI: I still think that is a job that I need to continue, you know, pushing back on.

HUIZINGA: Do you think that any of that sort of outrageous reaction was due to the fact that the technology wasn’t as advanced as it is now and that it might have changed in terms of what we can do?

BALI: There was definitely the aspect of technology there that it was just quite difficult and very, very resource-intensive to build it for languages which did not have resources. You know, there was a time when we were talking about how to go about doing this, and because people in various big tech companies, people did not really remember a time when, for English, they had to start data collection from scratch because everyone who was working on, say, English at that time was building on what people had done years and years ago. So they could not even conceptualize that you had to start from scratch for anything, right. But now with the technology as well, I’m quite optimistic and trying to think of how cool it would be to do, you know, smaller data collections and fine-tuned models specifically and things like that, so I think that the technology is definitely one big thing, but economics is a big factor, too.

HUIZINGA: Mmm-hmm. Well, I’m glad that you said it isn’t just the feel good, but it actually would make economic sense because that’s some of the driver behind what technologies get “greenlit,” as it were. Is there anything outrageous now that you could think of that, even to you, sounds like, oh, we could never do that …

BALI: Well … I didn’t think HAL was outrageous, so I’m not … [LAUGHS]

HUIZINGA: Back to HAL 9000! [LAUGHS]

BALI: Yeah, so I don’t think of things as outrageous or not. I just think of things as things that need to get done, if that makes any sense?

HUIZINGA: Totally. Maybe it’s, how do we override “Open the pod bay door, HAL”—“No, I’m sorry, Dave. I can’t do that”? [LAUGHS]

BALI: Yes. [LAUGHS] Yeah…

HUIZINGA: Well, as we close—and I’m sad to close because you are so much fun—I want to do a little vision casting, but in reverse. So let’s fast-forward 20 years and look back. How have the big ideas behind your life’s work impacted the world, and how are people better off or different now because of you and the teams that you’ve worked with?

BALI: So the way I see it is that people across the board, irrespective of the language they speak, the communities they belong to, the demographies they represent, can use technology to make their lives, their work, better. I know it sounds like really a very big and almost too good to be true, but that’s what I’m aiming for.

HUIZINGA: Well, Kalika Bali, I’m so grateful I got to talk to you in person. And thanks for taking time out from your busy trip from India to sit down with me and our audience and share your amazing ideas.

[MUSIC PLAYS]

BALI: Thank you so much, Gretchen.

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Gretchen Huizinga

Executive Producer and Host of the Microsoft Research Podcast

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Trends and hot topics in linguistics studies from 2011 to 2021: a bibliometric analysis of highly cited papers.

School of Foreign Languages, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China

High citations most often characterize quality research that reflects the foci of the discipline. This study aims to spotlight the most recent hot topics and the trends looming from the highly cited papers (HCPs) in Web of Science category of linguistics and language & linguistics with bibliometric analysis. The bibliometric information of the 143 HCPs based on Essential Citation Indicators was retrieved and used to identify and analyze influential contributors at the levels of journals, authors, and countries. The most frequently explored topics were identified by corpus analysis and manual checking. The retrieved topics can be grouped into five general categories: multilingual-related , language teaching , and learning related , psycho/pathological/cognitive linguistics-related , methods and tools-related , and others . Topics such as bi/multilingual(ism) , translanguaging , language/writing development , models , emotions , foreign language enjoyment (FLE) , cognition , anxiety are among the most frequently explored. Multilingual and positive trends are discerned from the investigated HCPs. The findings inform linguistic researchers of the publication characteristics of the HCPs in the linguistics field and help them pinpoint the research trends and directions to exert their efforts in future studies.

1. Introduction

Citations, as a rule, exhibit a skewed distributional pattern over the academic publications: a few papers accumulate an overwhelming large citations while the majority are rarely, if ever, cited. Correspondingly, the highly cited papers (HCPs) receive the greatest amount of attention in the academia as citations are commonly regarded as a strong indicator of research excellence. For academic professionals, following HCPs is an efficient way to stay current with the developments in a field and to make better informed decisions regarding potential research topics and directions to exert their efforts. For academic institutions, government and private agencies, and generally the science policy makers, they keep a close eye on and take advantage of this visible indicator, citations, to make more informed decisions on research funding allocation and science policy formulation. Under the backdrop of ever-growing academic outputs, there is noticeable attention shift from publication quantity to publication quality. Many countries are developing research policies to identify “excellent” universities, research groups, and researchers ( Danell, 2011 ). In a word, HCPs showcase high-quality research, encompass significant themes, and constitute a critical reference point in a research field as they are “gold bullion of science” ( Smith, 2007 ).

2. Literature review

Bibliometrics, a term coined by Pritchard (1969) , refers to the application of mathematical methods to the analysis of academic publications. Essentially this is a quantitative method to depict publication patterns within a given field based on a body of literature. There are many bibliometric studies on natural and social sciences in general ( Hsu and Ho, 2014 ; Zhu and Lei, 2022 ) and on various specific disciplines such as management sciences ( Liao et al., 2018 ), biomass research ( Chen and Ho, 2015 ), computer sciences ( Xie and Willett, 2013 ), and sport sciences ( Mancebo et al., 2013 ; Ríos et al., 2013 ), etc. In these studies, researchers tracked developments, weighed research impacts, and highlighted emerging scientific fronts with bibliometric methods. In the field of linguistics, bibliometric studies all occurred in the past few years ( van Doorslaer and Gambier, 2015 ; Lei and Liao, 2017 ; Gong et al., 2018 ; Lei and Liu, 2018 , 2019 ). These bibliometric studies mostly examined a sub-area of linguistics, such as corpus linguistics ( Liao and Lei, 2017 ), translation studies ( van Doorslaer and Gambier, 2015 ), the teaching of Chinese as a second/foreign language ( Gong et al., 2018 ), academic journals like System ( Lei and Liu, 2018 ) or Porta Linguarum ( Sabiote and Rodríguez, 2015 ), etc. Although Lei and Liu (2019) took the entire discipline of linguistics under investigation, their research is exclusively focused on applied linguistics and restricted in a limited number of journals (42 journals in total), leaving publications in other linguistics disciplines and qualified journals unexamined.

Over the recent years, a number of studies have been concerned with “excellent” papers or HCPs. For example, Small (2004) surveyed the HCPs authors’ opinions on why their papers are highly cited. The strong interest, the novelty, the utility, and the high importance of the work were among the most frequently mentioned. Most authors also considered that their selected HCPs are indeed based on their most important work in their academic career. Aksnes (2003) investigated the characteristics of HCPs and found that they were generally authored by a large number of scientists, often involving international collaboration. Some researchers even attempted to predict the HCPs by building mathematical models, implying “the first mover advantage in scientific publication” ( Newman, 2008 , 2014 ). In other words, papers published earlier in a field generally are more likely to accumulate more citations than those published later. Although many papers addressed HCPs from different perspectives, they held a common belief that HCPs are very different from less or zero cited papers and thus deserve utmost attention in academic research ( Aksnes, 2003 ; Blessinger and Hrycaj, 2010 ; Yan et al., 2022 ).

Although an increased focus on research quality can be observed in different fields, opinions diverge on the range and the inclusion criterion of excellent papers. Are they ‘highly cited’, ‘top cited’, or ‘most frequently cited’ papers? Aksnes (2003) noted two different approaches to define a highly cited article, involving absolute or relative thresholds, respectively. An absolute threshold stipulates a minimum number of citations for identifying excellent papers while a relative threshold employs the percentile rank classes, for example, the top 10% most highly cited papers in a discipline or in a publication year or in a publication set. It is important to note that citations differ significantly in different fields and disciplines. A HCP in natural sciences generally accumulates more citations than its counterpart in social sciences. Thus, it is necessary to investigate HCPs from different fields separately or adopt different inclusion criterion to ensure a valid comparison.

The present study has been motivated by two considerations. First, the sizable number of publications of varied qualities in a scientific field makes it difficult or even impossible to conduct any reliable and effective literature research. Focusing on the quality publications, the HCPs in particular, might lend more credibility to the findings on trends. Second, HCPs can serve as a great platform to discover potentially important information for the development of a discipline and understand the past, present, and future of the scientific structure. Therefore, the present study aims to investigate the hot topics and publication trends in the Web of Science category of linguistics or language & linguistics (shortened as linguistics in later references) with bibliometric methods. The study aims to answer the following three questions:

1. Who are the most productive and impactful contributors of the HCPs in WoS category of linguistics or language & linguistics in terms of publication venues, authors, and countries?

2. What are the most frequently explored topics in HCPs?

3. What are the general research trends revealed from the HCPs?

3. Materials and methods

Different from previous studies which used an arbitrary inclusion threshold (e.g., Blessinger and Hrycaj, 2010 ; Hsu and Ho, 2014 ), we rely on Essential Science Indicator (ESI) to identify the HCPs. Developed by Clarivate, a leading company in the areas of bibliometrics and scientometrics, ESI reveals emerging science trends as well as influential individuals, institutions, papers, journals, and countries in any scientific fields of inquiry by drawing on the complete WoS databases. ESI has been chosen for the following three reasons. First, ESI adopts a stricter inclusion criterion for HCPs identification. That is, a paper is selected as a HCP only when its citations exceed the top 1% citation threshold in each of the 22 ESI subject categories. Second, ESI is widely used and recognized for its reliability and authority in identifying the top-charting work, generating “excellent” metrics including hot and highly cited papers. Third, ESI automatically updates its database to generate the most recent HCPs, especially suitable for trend studies for a specified timeframe.

3.1. Data source

The data retrieval was completed at the portal of our university library on June 20, 2022. The methods to retrieve the data are described in Table 1 . The bibliometric indicators regarding the important contributors at journal/author/country levels were obtained. Specifically, after the research was completed, we clicked the “Analyze Results” bar on the result page for the detailed descriptive analysis of the retrieved bibliometric data.

Table 1 . Retrieval strategies.

Several points should be noted about the search strategies. First, we searched the bibliometric data from two sub-databases of WoS core collection: Social Science Citation Index (SSCI) and Arts & Humanities Citation Index (A&HCI). There is no need to include the sub-database of Science Citation Index Expanded (SCI-EXPANDED) because publications in the linguistics field are almost exclusively indexed in SSCI and A&HCI journals. WoS core collection was chosen as the data source because it boasts one of the most comprehensive and authoritative databases of bibliometric information in the world. Many previous studies utilized WoS to retrieve bibliometric data. van Oorschot et al. (2018) and Ruggeri et al. (2019) even indicated that WoS meets the highest standards in terms of impact factor and citation counts and hence guarantees the validity of any bibliometric analysis. Second, we do not restrict the document types as HCPs selection informed by ESI only considers articles and reviews. Third, we do not set the date range as the dataset of ESI-HCPs is automatically updated regularly to include the most recent 10 years of publications.

The aforementioned query obtained a total of 143 HCPs published in 48 journals contributed by 352 authors of 226 institutions. We then downloaded the raw bibliometric parameters of the 143 HCPs for follow-up analysis including publication years, authors, publication titles, countries, affiliations, abstracts, citation reports, etc. A complete list of the 143 HCPs can be found in the Supplementary Material . We collected the most recent impact factor (IF) of each journal from the 2022 Journal Citation Reports (JCR).

3.2. Data analysis

3.2.1. citation analysis.

A citation threshold is the minimum number of citations obtained by ranking papers in a research field in descending order by citation counts and then selecting the top fraction or percentage of papers. In ESI, the highly cited threshold reveals the minimum number of citations received by the top 1% of papers from each of the 10 database years. In other words, a paper has to meet the minimum citation threshold that varies by research fields and by years to enter the HCP list. Of the 22 research fields in ESI, Social Science, General is a broad field covering a number of WoS categories including linguistics and language & linguistics . We checked the ESI official website to obtain the yearly highly cited thresholds in the research field of Social Science , General as shown in Figure 1 ( https://esi.clarivate.com/ThresholdsAction.action ). As we can see, the longer a paper has been published, the more citations it has to receive to meet the threshold. We then divided the raw citation numbers of HCPs with the Highly Cited Thresholds in the corresponding year to obtain the normalized citations for each HCP.

Figure 1 . Highly cited thresholds in the research field of Social Sciences, General.

3.2.2. Corpus analysis and manual checking

To determine the most frequently explored topics in these HCPs, we used both corpus-based analysis of word frequency and manual checking. Specifically, the more frequently a word or phrase occurs in a specifically designed corpus, the more likely it constitutes a research topic. In this study, we built an Abstract corpus with all the abstracts of the 143 HCPs, totaling 24,800 tokens. The procedures to retrieve the research topics in the Abstract corpus were as follows. First, the 143 pieces of abstracts were saved as separate.txt files in one folder. Second, AntConc ( Anthony, 2022 ), a corpus analysis tool for concordancing and text analysis, was employed to extract lists of n-grams (2–4) in decreasing order of frequency. We also generated a list of individual nouns because sometimes individual nouns can also constitute research topics. Considering our small corpus data, we adopted both frequency (3) and range criteria (3) for topic candidacy. That is, a candidate n-gram must occur at least 3 times and in at least 3 different abstract files. The frequency threshold guarantees the importance of the candidate topics while the range threshold guarantees that the topics are not overly crowded in a few number of publications. In this process, we actually tested the frequency and range thresholds several rounds for the inclusion of all the potential topics. In total, we obtained 531 nouns, 1,330 2-grams, 331 3-grams, and 81 4-grams. Third, because most of the retrieved n-grams cannot function as meaningful research topics, we manually checked all the candidate items and discussed extensively to decide their roles as potential research topics until full agreements were reached. Finally, we read all the abstracts of the 143 HCPs to further validate their roles as research topics. In the end, we got 118 topic items in total.

4.1. Main publication venues of HCPs

Of the 48 journals which published the 143 HCPs, 17 journals have contributed at least 3 HCPs ( Table 2 ), around 71.33% of the total examined HCPs (102/143), indicating that HCPs tend to be highly concentrated in a limited number of journals. The three largest publication outlets of HCPs are Bilingualism Language and Cognition (16), International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism (11), and Modern Language Journal (10). Because each journal varies greatly in the number of papers published per year and the number of HCPs is associated with journal circulations, we divided the total number of papers (TP) in the examined years (2011–2021) with the number of the HCPs to acquire the HCP percentage for each journal (HCPs/TP). The three journals with the highest HCPs/TP percentage are Annual Review of Applied Linguistics (2.26), Modern Language Journal (2.08), and Bilingualism Language and Cognition (1.74), indicating that papers published in these journals have a higher probability to enter the HCPs list.

Table 2 . Top 17 publication venues of HCPs.

In terms of the general impact of the HCPs from each journal, we divided the number of HCPs with their total citations (TC) to obtain the average citations for each HCP (TC/HCP). The three journals with the highest TC/HCP are Journal of Memory and Language (837.86), Computational Linguistics (533.75), and Journal of Pragmatics (303.75). It indicates that even in the same WoS category, HCPs in different journals have strikingly different capability to accumulate citations. For example, the TC/HCP in System is as low as 31.73, which is even less than 4% of the highest TC/HCP in Journal of Memory and Language .

In regards to the latest journal impact factor (IF) in 2022, the top four journals with the highest IF are Computational Linguistics (7.778) , Modern Language Journal (7.5), Computer Assisted Language Learning (5.964), and Language Learning (5.24). According to the Journal Citation Reports (JCR) quantile rankings in WoS category of linguistics , all the journals on the list belong to the Q 1 (the top 25%), indicating that contributors are more likely to be attracted to contribute and cite papers in these prestigious high impact journals.

4.2. Authors of HCPs

A total of 352 authors had their names listed in the 143 HCPs, of whom 33 authors appeared in at least 2 HCPs as shown in Table 3 . We also provided in Table 3 other indicators to evaluate the authors’ productivity and impact including the total number of citations (TC), the number of citations per HCP, and the number of First author or Corresponding author HCPs (FA/CA). The reason we include the FA/CA indicator is that first authors and corresponding authors are usually considered to contribute the most and should receive greater proportion of credit in academic publications ( Marui et al., 2004 ; Dance, 2012 ).

Table 3 . Authors with at least 2 HCPs.

In terms of the number of HCPs, Dewaele JM from Birkbeck Univ London tops the list with 7 HCPs with total citations of 492 (TC = 492), followed by Li C from Huazhong Univ Sci & Technol (#HCPs = 5; TC = 215) and Saito K from UCL (#HCPs = 5; TC = 576). It is to be noted that both Li C and Saito K have close academic collaborations with Dewaele JM . For example, 3 of the 5 HCPs by Li C are co-authored with Dewaele JM . The topics in their co-authored HCPs are mostly about foreign language learning emotions such as boredom , anxiety , enjoyment , the measurement , and positive psychology .

In regards to TC, Li, W . from UCL stands out as the most influential scholar among all the listed authors with total citations of 956 from 2 HCPs, followed by Norton B from Univ British Columbia (TC = 915) and Vasishth S from Univ Potsdam (TC = 694). The average citations per HCP from them are also the highest among the listed authors (478, 305, 347, respectively). It is important to note that Li, W.’ s 2 HCPs are his groundbreaking works on translanguaging which almost become must-reads for anyone who engages in translanguaging research ( Li, 2011 , 2018 ). Besides, Li, W. single authors his 2 HCPs, which is extremely rare as HCPs are often the results from multiple researchers. Norton B ’s HCPs are exploring some core issues in applied linguistics such as identity and investment , language learning , and social change that are considered the foundational work in its field ( Norton and Toohey, 2011 ; Darvin and Norton, 2015 ).

From the perspective of FA/CA papers, Li C from Huazhong Univ Sci and Technol is prominent because she is the first author of all her 5 HCPs. Her research on language learning emotions in the Chinese context is gaining widespread recognition ( Li et al., 2018 , 2019 , 2021 ; Li, 2019 , 2021 ). However, as a newly emerging researcher, most of her HCPs are published in the very recent years and hence accumulate relatively fewer citations (TC = 215). Mondada L from Univ Basel follows closely and single authors her 3 HCPs. Her work is mostly devoted to conversation analysis , multimodality , and social interaction ( Mondada, 2016 , 2018 , 2019 ).

We need to mention the following points regarding the productive authors of HCPs. First, when we calculated the number of HCPs from each author, only the papers published in the journals indexed in the investigated WoS categories were taken in account ( linguistics; language & linguistics ), which came as a compromise to protect the linguistics oriented nature of the HCPs. For example, Brysbaert M from Ghent University claimed a total of 8 HCPs at the time of the data retrieval, of which 6 HCPs were published in WoS category of psychology and more psychologically oriented, hence not included in our study. Besides, all the authors on the author list were treated equally when we calculated the number of HCPs, disregarding the author ordering. That implies that some influential authors may not be able to enter the list as their publications are comparatively fewer. Second, as some authors reported different affiliations at their different career stages, we only provide their most recent affiliation for convenience. Third, it is highly competitive to have one’s work selected as HCPs. The fact that a majority of the HCPs authors do not appear in our productive author list does not diminish their great contributions to this field. The rankings in Table 3 does not necessarily reflect the recognition authors have earned in academia at large.

4.3. Productive countries of HCPs

In total, the 143 HCPs originated from 33 countries. The most productive countries that contributed at least three HCPs are listed in Table 4 . The USA took an overwhelming lead with 59 HCPs, followed distantly by England with 31 HCPs. They also boasted the highest total citations (TC = 15,770; TC = 9,840), manifesting their high productivity and strong influence as traditional powerhouses in linguistics research. In regards to the average citations per HCP, Germany , England and the USA were the top three countries (TC/HCP = 281.67, 281.14, and 267.29, respectively). Although China held the third position with 19 HCPs published, its TC/HCP is the third from the bottom (TC/HCP = 66.84). One of the important reasons is that 13 out of the 19 HCPs contributed by scholars in China are published in the year of 2020 or 2021. The newly published HCPs may need more time to accumulate citations. Besides, 18 out of the 19 HCPs in China are first author and/or corresponding authors, indicating that scholars in China are becoming more independent and gaining more voice in English linguistics research.

Table 4 . Top 18 countries with at least 3 HCPs.

Two points should be noted here as to the productive countries. First, we calculated the HCP contributions from the country level instead of the region level. In other words, HCP contributions from different regions of the same country will be combined in the calculation. For example, HCPs from Scotland were added to the HCPs from England . HCPs from Hong Kong , Macau , and Taiwan are put together with the HCPs from Mainland China . In this way, a clear picture of the HCPs on the country level can be painted. Second, we manually checked the address information of the first author and corresponding author for each HCP. There are some cases where the first author or the corresponding author may report affiliations from more than one country. In this case, every country in their address list will be treated equally in the FA/CA calculation. In other word, a HCP may be classified into more than one country because of the different country backgrounds of the first and/or the corresponding author.

4.4. Top 20 HCPs

The top 20 HCPs with the highest normed citations are listed in decreasing order in Table 5 . The top cited publications can guide us to better understand the development and research topics in recent years.

Table 5 . Top 20 HCPs.

By reading the titles and the abstracts of these top HCPs, we categorized the topics of the 20 HCPs into the following five groups: (i) statistical and analytical methods in (psycho)linguistics such as sentimental analysis, sentence simplification techniques, effect sizes, linear mixed models (#1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 14), (ii) language learning/teaching emotions such enjoyment, anxiety, boredom, stress (#11, 15, 16, 18, 19), (iii) translanguaging or multilinguilism (#5, 13, 20, 17), (iv) language perception (#2, 7, 10), (v) medium of instruction (#8, 12). It is no surprise that 6 out of the top 20 HCPs are about statistical methods in linguistics because language researchers aspire to employ statistics to make their research more scientific. Besides, we noticed that the papers on language teaching/learning emotions on the list are all published in the year of 2020 and 2021, indicating that these emerging topics may deserve more attention in future research. We also noticed two Covid-19 related articles (#16, 19) explored the emotions teachers and students experience during the pandemic, a timely response to the urgent need of the language learning and teaching community.

It is of special interest to note that papers from the journals indexed in multiple JCR categories seem to accumulate more citations. For example, Journal of Memory and Language , American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology , and Computational Linguistics are indexed both in SSCI and SCIE and contribute the top 4 HCPs, manifesting the advantage of these hybrid journals in amassing citations compared to the conventional language journals. Besides, different to findings from Yan et al. (2022) that most of the top HCPs in the field of radiology are reviews in document types, 19 out of the top 20 HCPs are research articles instead of reviews except Macaro et al. (2018) .

4.5. Most frequently explored topics of HCPs

After obtaining the corpus based topic items, we read all the titles and abstracts of the 143 HCPs to further validate their roles as research topics. Table 6 presents the top research topics with the observed frequency of 5 or above. We grouped these topics into five broad categories: bilingual-related, language learning/teaching-related, psycho/pathological/cognitive linguistics-related, methods and tools-related, and others . The observed frequency count for each topic in the abstract corpus were included in the brackets. We found that about 34 of the 143 HCPs are exploring bilingual related issues, the largest share among all the categorized topics, testifying its academic popularity in the examined timespan. Besides, 30 of the 143 HCPs are investigating language learning/teaching-related issues, with topics ranging from learners (e.g., EFL learners, individual difference) to multiple learning variables (e.g., learning strategy, motivation, agency). The findings here will be validated by the analysis of the keywords.

Table 6 . Categorization of the most explored research topics.

Several points should be mentioned regarding the topic candidacy. First, for similar topic expressions, we used a cover term and added the frequency counts. For example, multilingualism is a cover term for bilinguals, bilingualism, plurilingualism, and multilingualism . Second, for nouns of singular and plural forms (e.g., emotion and emotions ) or for items with different spellings (e.g., meta analysis and meta analyses ), we combined the frequency counts. Third, we found that some longer items (3 grams and 4 grams) could be subsumed to short ones (2 grams or monogram) without loss of essential meaning (e.g., working memory from working memory capacity ). In this case, the shorter ones were kept for their higher frequency. Fourth, some highly frequent terms were discarded because they were too general to be valuable topics in language research, for example, applied linguistics , language use , second language .

5. Discussion and implications

Based on 143 highly cited papers collected from the WoS categories of linguistics , the present study attempts to present a bird’s eye view of the publication landscape and the most updated research themes reflected from the HCPs in the linguistics field. Specifically, we investigated the important contributors of HCPs in terms of journals, authors and countries. Besides, we spotlighted the research topics by corpus-based analysis of the abstracts and a detailed analysis of the top HCPs. The study has produced several findings that bear important implications.

The first finding is that the HCPs are highly concentrated in a limited journals and countries. In regards to journals, those in the spheres of bilingualism and applied linguistics (e.g., language teaching and learning) are likely to accumulate more citations and hence to produce more HCPs. Journals that focus on bilingualism from a linguistic, psycholinguistic, and neuroscientific perspective are the most frequent outlets of HCPs as evidenced by the top two productive journals of HCPs, Bilingualism Language and Cognition and International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism . This can be explained by the multidisciplinary nature of bilingual-related research and the development of cognitive measurement techniques. The merits of analyzing publication venues of HCPs are two folds. One the one hand, it can point out which sources of high-quality publications in this field can be inquired for readers as most of the significant and cutting-edge achievements are concentrated in these prestigious journals. On the other hand, it also provides essential guidance or channels for authors or contributors to submit their works for higher visibility.

In terms of country distributions, the traditional powerhouses in linguistics research such as the USA and England are undoubtedly leading the HCP publications in both the number and the citations of the HCPs. However, developing countries are also becoming increasing prominent such as China and Iran , which could be traceable in the funding and support of national language policies and development policies as reported in recent studies ( Ping et al., 2009 ; Lei and Liu, 2019 ). Take China as an example. Along with economic development, China has given more impetus to academic outputs with increased investment in scientific research ( Lei and Liao, 2017 ). Therefore, researchers in China are highly motivated to publish papers in high-quality journals to win recognition in international academia and to deal with the publish or perish pressure ( Lee, 2014 ). These factors may explain the rise of China as a new emerging research powerhouse in both natural and social sciences, including English linguistics research.

The second finding is the multilingual trend in linguistics research. The dominant clustering of topics regarding multilingualism can be understood as a timely response to the multilingual research fever ( May, 2014 ). 34 out of the 143 HCPs have such words as bilingualism, bilingual, multilingualism , translanguaging , etc., in their titles, reflecting a strong multilingual tendency of the HCPs. Multilingual-related HCPs mainly involve three aspects: multilingualism from the perspectives of psycholinguistics and cognition (e.g., Luk et al., 2011 ; Leivada et al., 2020 ); multilingual teaching (e.g., Schissel et al., 2018 ; Ortega, 2019 ; Archila et al., 2021 ); language policies related to multilingualism (e.g., Shen and Gao, 2018 ). As a pedagogical process initially used to describe the bilingual classroom practice and also a frequently explored topic in HCPs, translanguaging is developed into an applied linguistics theory since Li’s Translanguaging as a Practical Theory of Language ( Li, 2018 ). The most common collocates of translanguaging in the Abstract corpus are pedagogy/pedagogies, practices, space/spaces . There are two main reasons for this multilingual turn. First, the rapid development of globalization, immigration, and overseas study programs greatly stimulate the use and research of multiple languages in different linguistic contexts. Second, in many non-English countries, courses are delivered through languages (mostly English) besides their mother tongue ( Clark, 2017 ). Students are required to use multiple languages as resources to learn and understand subjects and ideas. The burgeoning body of English Medium Instruction literature in higher education is in line with the rising interest in multilingualism. Due to the innate multidisciplinary nature, it is to be expected that, multilingualism, the topic du jour, is bound to attract more attention in the future.

The third finding is the application of Positive Psychology (PP) in second language acquisition (SLA), that is, the positive trend in linguistic research. In our analysis, 20 out of 143 HCPs have words or phrases such as emotions, enjoyment, boredom, anxiety , and positive psychology in their titles, which might signal a shift of interest in the psychology of language learners and teachers in different linguistic environments. Our study shows Foreign language enjoyment (FLE) is the most frequently explored emotion, followed by foreign language classroom anxiety (FLCA), the learners’ metaphorical left and right feet on their journey to acquiring the foreign language ( Dewaele and MacIntyre, 2016 ). In fact, the topics of PP are not entirely new to SLA. For example, studies of language motivations, affections, and good language learners all provide roots for the emergence of PP in SLA ( Naiman, 1978 ; Gardner, 2010 ). In recent years, both research and teaching applications of PP in SLA are building rapidly, with a diversity of topics already being explored such as positive education and PP interventions. It is to be noted that SLA also feeds back on PP theories and concepts besides drawing inspirations from it, which makes it “an area rich for interdisciplinary cross-fertilization of ideas” ( Macintyre et al., 2019 ).

It should be noted that subjectivity is involved when we decide and categorize the candidate topic items based on the Abstract corpus. However, the frequency and range criteria guarantee that these items are actually more explored in multiple HCPs, thus indicating topic values for further investigation. Some high frequent n-grams are abandoned because they are too general or not meaningful topics. For example, applied linguistics is too broad to be included as most of the HCPs concern issues in this research line instead of theoretical linguistics. By meaningful topics, we mean that the topics can help journal editors and readers quickly locate their interested fields ( Lei and Liu, 2019 ), as the author keywords such as bilingualism , emotions , and individual differences . The examination of the few 3/4-grams and monograms (mostly nouns) revealed that most of them were either not meaningful topics or they could be subsumed in the 2-grams. Besides, there is inevitably some overlapping in the topic categorizations. For example, some topics in the language teaching and learning category are situated and discussed within the context of multilingualism. The merits of topic categorizations are two folds: to better monitor the overlapping between the Abstract corpus-based topic items and the keywords; to roughly delineate the research strands in the HCPs for future research.

It should also be noted that all the results were based on the retrieved HCPs only. The study did not aim to paint a comprehensive and full picture of the whole landscape of linguistic research. Rather, it specifically focused on the most popular literature in a specified timeframe, thus generating the snapshots or trends in linguistic research. One of the important merits of this methodology is that some newly emerging but highly cited researchers can be spotlighted and gain more academic attention because only the metrics of HCPs are considered in calculation. On the contrary, the exclusion of some other highly cited researchers in general such as Rod Ellis and Ken Hyland just indicates that their highly cited publications are not within our investigated timeframe and cannot be interpreted as their diminishing academic influence in the field. Besides, the study does not consider the issue of collaborators or collaborations in calculating the number of HCPs for two reasons. First, although some researchers are regular collaborators such as Li CC and Dewaele JM, their individual contribution can never be undermined. Second, the study also provides additional information about the number of the FA/CA HCPs from each listed author, which may aid readers in locating their interested research.

We acknowledge that our study has some limitations that should be addressed in future research. First, our study focuses on the HCPs extracted from WoS SSCI and A&HCI journals, the alleged most celebrated papers in this field. Future studies may consider including data from other databases such as Scopus to verify the findings of the present study. Second, our Abstract corpus-based method for topic extraction involved human judgement. Although the final list was the result of several rounds of discussions among the authors, it is difficult or even impossible to avoid subjectivity and some worthy topics may be unconsciously missed. Therefore, future research may consider employing automatic algorithms to extract topics. For example, a dependency-based machine learning approach can be used to identify research topics ( Zhu and Lei, 2021 ).

Data availability statement

The datasets presented in this study can be found in online repositories. The names of the repository/repositories and accession number(s) can be found in the article/ supplementary material .

Author contributions

SY: conceptualization and methodology. SY and LZ: writing-review and editing and writing-original draft. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

This work was supported by Humanities and Social Sciences Youth Fund of China MOE under the grant 20YJC740076 and 18YJC740141.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1052586/full#supplementary-material

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Keywords: bibliometric analysis, linguistics, highly cited papers, corpus analysis, research trends

Citation: Yan S and Zhang L (2023) Trends and hot topics in linguistics studies from 2011 to 2021: A bibliometric analysis of highly cited papers. Front. Psychol . 13:1052586. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1052586

Received: 24 September 2022; Accepted: 23 December 2022; Published: 11 January 2023.

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Copyright © 2023 Yan and Zhang. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Le Zhang, ✉ [email protected]

Disclaimer: All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article or claim that may be made by its manufacturer is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

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A new way to detect radiation involving cheap ceramics

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Jennifer Rupp, Thomas Defferriere, Harry Tuller, and Ju Li pose standing in a lab, with a nuclear radiation warning sign in the background

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The radiation detectors used today for applications like inspecting cargo ships for smuggled nuclear materials are expensive and cannot operate in harsh environments, among other disadvantages. Now, in work funded largely by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security with early support from the U.S. Department of Energy, MIT engineers have demonstrated a fundamentally new way to detect radiation that could allow much cheaper detectors and a plethora of new applications.

They are working with Radiation Monitoring Devices , a company in Watertown, Massachusetts, to transfer the research as quickly as possible into detector products.

In a 2022 paper in Nature Materials , many of the same engineers reported for the first time how ultraviolet light can significantly improve the performance of fuel cells and other devices based on the movement of charged atoms, rather than those atoms’ constituent electrons.

In the current work, published recently in Advanced Materials , the team shows that the same concept can be extended to a new application: the detection of gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of nuclear materials.

“Our approach involves materials and mechanisms very different than those in presently used detectors, with potentially enormous benefits in terms of reduced cost, ability to operate under harsh conditions, and simplified processing,” says Harry L. Tuller, the R.P. Simmons Professor of Ceramics and Electronic Materials in MIT’s Department of Materials Science and Engineering (DMSE).

Tuller leads the work with key collaborators Jennifer L. M. Rupp, a former associate professor of materials science and engineering at MIT who is now a professor of electrochemical materials at Technical University Munich in Germany, and Ju Li, the Battelle Energy Alliance Professor in Nuclear Engineering and a professor of materials science and engineering. All are also affiliated with MIT’s Materials Research Laboratory

“After learning the Nature Materials work, I realized the same underlying principle should work for gamma-ray detection — in fact, may work even better than [UV] light because gamma rays are more penetrating — and proposed some experiments to Harry and Jennifer,” says Li.

Says Rupp, “Employing shorter-range gamma rays enable [us] to extend the opto-ionic to a radio-ionic effect by modulating ionic carriers and defects at material interfaces by photogenerated electronic ones.”

Other authors of the Advanced Materials paper are first author Thomas Defferriere, a DMSE postdoc, and Ahmed Sami Helal, a postdoc in MIT’s Department of Nuclear Science and Engineering.

Modifying barriers

Charge can be carried through a material in different ways. We are most familiar with the charge that is carried by the electrons that help make up an atom. Common applications include solar cells. But there are many devices — like fuel cells and lithium batteries — that depend on the motion of the charged atoms, or ions, themselves rather than just their electrons.

The materials behind applications based on the movement of ions, known as solid electrolytes, are ceramics. Ceramics, in turn, are composed of tiny crystallite grains that are compacted and fired at high temperatures to form a dense structure. The problem is that ions traveling through the material are often stymied at the boundaries between the grains.

In their 2022 paper, the MIT team showed that ultraviolet (UV) light shone on a solid electrolyte essentially causes electronic perturbations at the grain boundaries that ultimately lower the barrier that ions encounter at those boundaries. The result: “We were able to enhance the flow of the ions by a factor of three,” says Tuller, making for a much more efficient system.

Vast potential

At the time, the team was excited about the potential of applying what they’d found to different systems. In the 2022 work, the team used UV light, which is quickly absorbed very near the surface of a material. As a result, that specific technique is only effective in thin films of materials. (Fortunately, many applications of solid electrolytes involve thin films.)

Light can be thought of as particles — photons — with different wavelengths and energies. These range from very low-energy radio waves to the very high-energy gamma rays emitted by the radioactive decay of nuclear materials. Visible light — and UV light — are of intermediate energies, and fit between the two extremes.

The MIT technique reported in 2022 worked with UV light. Would it work with other wavelengths of light, potentially opening up new applications? Yes, the team found. In the current paper they show that gamma rays also modify the grain boundaries resulting in a faster flow of ions that, in turn, can be easily detected. And because the high-energy gamma rays penetrate much more deeply than UV light, “this extends the work to inexpensive bulk ceramics in addition to thin films,” says Tuller. It also allows a new application: an alternative approach to detecting nuclear materials.

Today’s state-of-the-art radiation detectors depend on a completely different mechanism than the one identified in the MIT work. They rely on signals derived from electrons and their counterparts, holes, rather than ions. But these electronic charge carriers must move comparatively great distances to the electrodes that “capture” them to create a signal. And along the way, they can be easily lost as they, for example, hit imperfections in a material. That’s why today’s detectors are made with extremely pure single crystals of material that allow an unimpeded path. They can be made with only certain materials and are difficult to process, making them expensive and hard to scale into large devices.

Using imperfections

In contrast, the new technique works because of the imperfections — grains — in the material. “The difference is that we rely on ionic currents being modulated at grain boundaries versus the state-of-the-art that relies on collecting electronic carriers from long distances,” Defferriere says.

Says Rupp, “It is remarkable that the bulk ‘grains’ of the ceramic materials tested revealed high stabilities of the chemistry and structure towards gamma rays, and solely the grain boundary regions reacted in charge redistribution of majority and minority carriers and defects.”

Comments Li, “This radiation-ionic effect is distinct from the conventional mechanisms for radiation detection where electrons or photons are collected. Here, the ionic current is being collected.”

Igor Lubomirsky, a professor in the Department of Materials and Interfaces at the Weizmann Institute of Science, Israel, who was not involved in the current work, says, “I found the approach followed by the MIT group in utilizing polycrystalline oxygen ion conductors very fruitful given the [materials’] promise for providing reliable operation under irradiation under the harsh conditions expected in nuclear reactors where such detectors often suffer from fatigue and aging. [They also] benefit from much-reduced fabrication costs.”

As a result, the MIT engineers are hopeful that their work could result in new, less expensive detectors. For example, they envision trucks loaded with cargo from container ships driving through a structure that has detectors on both sides as they leave a port. “Ideally, you’d have either an array of detectors or a very large detector, and that’s where [today’s detectors] really don’t scale very well,” Tuller says.

Another potential application involves accessing geothermal energy, or the extreme heat below our feet that is being explored as a carbon-free alternative to fossil fuels. Ceramic sensors at the ends of drill bits could detect pockets of heat — radiation — to drill toward. Ceramics can easily withstand extreme temperatures of more than 800 degrees Fahrenheit and the extreme pressures found deep below the Earth’s surface.

The team is excited about additional applications for their work. “This was a demonstration of principle with just one material,” says Tuller, “but there are thousands of other materials good at conducting ions.”

Concludes Defferriere: “It’s the start of a journey on the development of the technology, so there’s a lot to do and a lot to discover.”

This work is currently supported by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Countering Weapons of Mass Destruction Office. This support does not constitute an express or implied endorsement on the part of the government. It was also funded by the U.S. Defense Threat Reduction Agency.

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About 1 in 4 u.s. teachers say their school went into a gun-related lockdown in the last school year.

Twenty-five years after the mass shooting at Columbine High School in Colorado , a majority of public K-12 teachers (59%) say they are at least somewhat worried about the possibility of a shooting ever happening at their school. This includes 18% who say they’re extremely or very worried, according to a new Pew Research Center survey.

Pew Research Center conducted this analysis to better understand public K-12 teachers’ views on school shootings, how prepared they feel for a potential active shooter, and how they feel about policies that could help prevent future shootings.

To do this, we surveyed 2,531 U.S. public K-12 teachers from Oct. 17 to Nov. 14, 2023. The teachers are members of RAND’s American Teacher Panel, a nationally representative panel of public school K-12 teachers recruited through MDR Education. Survey data is weighted to state and national teacher characteristics to account for differences in sampling and response to ensure they are representative of the target population.

We also used data from our 2022 survey of U.S. parents. For that project, we surveyed 3,757 U.S. parents with at least one child younger than 18 from Sept. 20 to Oct. 2, 2022. Find more details about the survey of parents here .

Here are the questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and the survey methodology .

Another 31% of teachers say they are not too worried about a shooting occurring at their school. Only 7% of teachers say they are not at all worried.

This survey comes at a time when school shootings are at a record high (82 in 2023) and gun safety continues to be a topic in 2024 election campaigns .

A pie chart showing that a majority of teachers are at least somewhat worried about a shooting occurring at their school.

Teachers’ experiences with lockdowns

A horizontal stacked bar chart showing that about 1 in 4 teachers say their school had a gun-related lockdown last year.

About a quarter of teachers (23%) say they experienced a lockdown in the 2022-23 school year because of a gun or suspicion of a gun at their school. Some 15% say this happened once during the year, and 8% say this happened more than once.

High school teachers are most likely to report experiencing these lockdowns: 34% say their school went on at least one gun-related lockdown in the last school year. This compares with 22% of middle school teachers and 16% of elementary school teachers.

Teachers in urban schools are also more likely to say that their school had a gun-related lockdown. About a third of these teachers (31%) say this, compared with 19% of teachers in suburban schools and 20% in rural schools.

Do teachers feel their school has prepared them for an active shooter?

About four-in-ten teachers (39%) say their school has done a fair or poor job providing them with the training and resources they need to deal with a potential active shooter.

A bar chart showing that 3 in 10 teachers say their school has done an excellent or very good job preparing them for an active shooter.

A smaller share (30%) give their school an excellent or very good rating, and another 30% say their school has done a good job preparing them.

Teachers in urban schools are the least likely to say their school has done an excellent or very good job preparing them for a potential active shooter. About one-in-five (21%) say this, compared with 32% of teachers in suburban schools and 35% in rural schools.

Teachers who have police officers or armed security stationed in their school are more likely than those who don’t to say their school has done an excellent or very good job preparing them for a potential active shooter (36% vs. 22%).

Overall, 56% of teachers say they have police officers or armed security stationed at their school. Majorities in rural schools (64%) and suburban schools (56%) say this, compared with 48% in urban schools.

Only 3% of teachers say teachers and administrators at their school are allowed to carry guns in school. This is slightly more common in school districts where a majority of voters cast ballots for Donald Trump in 2020 than in school districts where a majority of voters cast ballots for Joe Biden (5% vs. 1%).

What strategies do teachers think could help prevent school shootings?

A bar chart showing that 69% of teachers say better mental health treatment would be highly effective in preventing school shootings.

The survey also asked teachers how effective some measures would be at preventing school shootings.

Most teachers (69%) say improving mental health screening and treatment for children and adults would be extremely or very effective.

About half (49%) say having police officers or armed security in schools would be highly effective, while 33% say the same about metal detectors in schools.

Just 13% say allowing teachers and school administrators to carry guns in schools would be extremely or very effective at preventing school shootings. Seven-in-ten teachers say this would be not too or not at all effective.

How teachers’ views differ by party

A dot plot showing that teachers’ views of strategies to prevent school shootings differ by political party.

Republican and Republican-leaning teachers are more likely than Democratic and Democratic-leaning teachers to say each of the following would be highly effective:

Having police officers or armed security in schools (69% vs. 37%)
Having metal detectors in schools (43% vs. 27%)
Allowing teachers and school administrators to carry guns in schools (28% vs. 3%)

And while majorities in both parties say improving mental health screening and treatment would be highly effective at preventing school shootings, Democratic teachers are more likely than Republican teachers to say this (73% vs. 66%).

Parents’ views on school shootings and prevention strategies

In fall 2022, we asked parents a similar set of questions about school shootings.

Roughly a third of parents with K-12 students (32%) said they were extremely or very worried about a shooting ever happening at their child’s school. An additional 37% said they were somewhat worried.

As is the case among teachers, improving mental health screening and treatment was the only strategy most parents (63%) said would be extremely or very effective at preventing school shootings. And allowing teachers and school administrators to carry guns in schools was seen as the least effective – in fact, half of parents said this would be not too or not at all effective. This question was asked of all parents with a child younger than 18, regardless of whether they have a child in K-12 schools.

Like teachers, parents’ views on strategies for preventing school shootings differed by party.

Note: Here are the questions used for this analysis , along with responses, and the survey methodology .

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Trends and hot topics in linguistics studies from 2011 to 2021: A bibliometric analysis of highly cited papers

Associated data.

The datasets presented in this study can be found in online repositories. The names of the repository/repositories and accession number(s) can be found in the article/ supplementary material .

1. Introduction

2. Literature review

Who are the most productive and impactful contributors of the HCPs in WoS category of linguistics or language & linguistics in terms of publication venues, authors, and countries?
What are the most frequently explored topics in HCPs?
What are the general research trends revealed from the HCPs?

3. Materials and methods

3.1. Data source

Retrieval strategies.

3.2. Data analysis

3.2.1. citation analysis.

An external file that holds a picture, illustration, etc.
Object name is fpsyg-13-1052586-g001.jpg

Highly cited thresholds in the research field of Social Sciences, General.

3.2.2. Corpus analysis and manual checking

To determine the most frequently explored topics in these HCPs, we used both corpus-based analysis of word frequency and manual checking. Specifically, the more frequently a word or phrase occurs in a specifically designed corpus, the more likely it constitutes a research topic. In this study, we built an Abstract corpus with all the abstracts of the 143 HCPs, totaling 24,800 tokens. The procedures to retrieve the research topics in the Abstract corpus were as follows. First, the 143 pieces of abstracts were saved as separate .txt files in one folder. Second, AntConc ( Anthony, 2022 ), a corpus analysis tool for concordancing and text analysis, was employed to extract lists of n-grams (2–4) in decreasing order of frequency. We also generated a list of individual nouns because sometimes individual nouns can also constitute research topics. Considering our small corpus data, we adopted both frequency (3) and range criteria (3) for topic candidacy. That is, a candidate n-gram must occur at least 3 times and in at least 3 different abstract files. The frequency threshold guarantees the importance of the candidate topics while the range threshold guarantees that the topics are not overly crowded in a few number of publications. In this process, we actually tested the frequency and range thresholds several rounds for the inclusion of all the potential topics. In total, we obtained 531 nouns, 1,330 2-grams, 331 3-grams, and 81 4-grams. Third, because most of the retrieved n-grams cannot function as meaningful research topics, we manually checked all the candidate items and discussed extensively to decide their roles as potential research topics until full agreements were reached. Finally, we read all the abstracts of the 143 HCPs to further validate their roles as research topics. In the end, we got 118 topic items in total.

4.1. Main publication venues of HCPs

Top 17 publication venues of HCPs.

N: the number of HCPs in each journal; N%: the percentage of HCPs in each journal in the total of 143 HCPs; TP: the total number of papers in the examined timespan (2011–2021); N/TP %: the percentage of HCPs in the total journal publications in the examined time span; TC/HCP: average citations of each HCP; R: journal ranking for the designated indicator; IF: Impact Factor in the year of 2022.

4.2. Authors of HCPs

Authors with at least 2 HCPs.

N: number of HCPs from each author; FA/CA: first author or corresponding author HCPs; TC: total citations of the HCPs from each author; C/HCP: average citations per HCP for each author.

4.3. Productive countries of HCPs

Top 18 countries with at least 3 HCPs.

4.4. Top 20 HCPs

Top 20 HCPs.

To save space, not full information about the HCPs is given. Some article titles have been abbreviated if they are too lengthy; for the authors, we report the first two authors and use “et al” if there are three authors or more; RC: raw citations; NC: normalized citations

4.5. Most frequently explored topics of HCPs

Categorization of the most explored research topics.

N: the number of the HCPs in each topic category; ELF: English as a lingua franca; CLIL: content and language integrated learning; FLE: foreign language enjoyment; FLCA: foreign language classroom anxiety

5. Discussion and implications

Data availability statement

Author contributions.

SY: conceptualization and methodology. SY and LZ: writing-review and editing and writing-original draft. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

This work was supported by Humanities and Social Sciences Youth Fund of China MOE under the grant 20YJC740076 and 18YJC740141.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

Supplementary material

The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1052586/full#supplementary-material

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Title: mixture-of-depths: dynamically allocating compute in transformer-based language models.

Abstract: Transformer-based language models spread FLOPs uniformly across input sequences. In this work we demonstrate that transformers can instead learn to dynamically allocate FLOPs (or compute) to specific positions in a sequence, optimising the allocation along the sequence for different layers across the model depth. Our method enforces a total compute budget by capping the number of tokens ($k$) that can participate in the self-attention and MLP computations at a given layer. The tokens to be processed are determined by the network using a top-$k$ routing mechanism. Since $k$ is defined a priori, this simple procedure uses a static computation graph with known tensor sizes, unlike other conditional computation techniques. Nevertheless, since the identities of the $k$ tokens are fluid, this method can expend FLOPs non-uniformly across the time and model depth dimensions. Thus, compute expenditure is entirely predictable in sum total, but dynamic and context-sensitive at the token-level. Not only do models trained in this way learn to dynamically allocate compute, they do so efficiently. These models match baseline performance for equivalent FLOPS and wall-clock times to train, but require a fraction of the FLOPs per forward pass, and can be upwards of 50\% faster to step during post-training sampling.

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About Key Topics in Applied Linguistics. Books in this series provide critical accounts of the most important topics in applied linguistics, conceptualised as an interdisciplinary field of research and practice dealing with practical problems of language and communication. Some topics have been the subject of applied linguistics for many years ...
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Below are interesting research paper topics about linguistics: How Greek philosophers contributed to linguistics. The importance of cuneiform writings to linguistic development. Discuss the origin of dialects. Analyze mythology in linguistics. Language origination is an unfathomable issue.
Language and linguistics
Drawing upon the philosophical theories of language—that the meaning and inference of a word is dependent on its use—we argue that the context in which use of the term patient occurs is ...
Trends and hot topics in linguistics studies from 2011 to 2021: A
The retrieved topics can be grouped into five general categories: multilingual-related, language teaching, and learning related, psycho/pathological/cognitive linguistics-related, methods and ...
Linguistics: Choose a Topic
Choose a Research Topic / Review the Literature. General approaches to choosing a linguistics research topic: Personal interest: If feasible, concentrate your efforts on a topic that interests you personally (e.g., bilingual education; English and the immigrant community; history of the English language). Think creatively.
Linguistics Dissertation Research Topics
Linguistic Research Topics. Topic 1: Linguistics: A tool to help in understanding the pronunciation development. Topic 2: Comprehending the science of language through linguistics. Topic 3: Linguistics and phenomenology: Inseparable parts in language. Topic 4: Study of phonetics as a part of linguistics. Topic 5: Linguistics: In shaping the ...
25+ Research Ideas in Linguistics You Can Explore as a High Schooler
18. Language and Emotion: Identifying specific linguistic elements, such as tone, lexical choice, or syntactic structures, that influence how emotions are understood and/or expressed in communication. 19. Speech Perception and Cognitive Load: Analyzing how external distractions affect the ability to comprehend and/or retain speech information.
Linguistics Research Paper Topics for Students
Author: Marina Kean. Research Paper Topics. Linguistics as a subject refers to studying different languages from several perspectives. And while you think writing a language essay equals describing the English language, you mustn't get the point. This covers many fields like phonology, phonetics, semantics, morphology, and others.
Research at MIT Linguistics
Research at MIT Linguistics - MIT Linguistics
Linguistics Research Paper
This sample linguistics research paper features: 8700 words (approx. 29 pages), an outline, and a bibliography with 32 sources. Browse other research paper exam ... Second, there is the complex weave among the topics of language evolution, language modification and change, and language death that in some respects is an uncompleted textile ...
[2403.20329] ReALM: Reference Resolution As Language Modeling
Reference resolution is an important problem, one that is essential to understand and successfully handle context of different kinds. This context includes both previous turns and context that pertains to non-conversational entities, such as entities on the user's screen or those running in the background. While LLMs have been shown to be extremely powerful for a variety of tasks, their use in ...
Ideas: Language technologies for everyone with Kalika Bali
Behind every emerging technology is a great idea propelling it forward. In the new Microsoft Research Podcast series, Ideas, members of the research community at Microsoft discuss the beliefs that animate their research, the experiences and thinkers that inform it, and the positive human impact it targets. In this episode, host Gretchen Huizinga talks with Principal Researcher Kalika Bali.
Frontiers
This study aims to spotlight the most recent hot topics and the trends looming from the highly cited papers (HCPs) in Web of Science category of linguistics and language & linguistics with bibliometric analysis. The bibliometric information of the 143 HCPs based on Essential Citation Indicators was retrieved and used to identify and analyze ...
ResearchAgent: Iterative Research Idea Generation over Scientific
Scientific Research, vital for improving human life, is hindered by its inherent complexity, slow pace, and the need for specialized experts. To enhance its productivity, we propose a ResearchAgent, a large language model-powered research idea writing agent, which automatically generates problems, methods, and experiment designs while iteratively refining them based on scientific literature ...
[2403.19887] Jamba: A Hybrid Transformer-Mamba Language Model
We present Jamba, a new base large language model based on a novel hybrid Transformer-Mamba mixture-of-experts (MoE) architecture. Specifically, Jamba interleaves blocks of Transformer and Mamba layers, enjoying the benefits of both model families. MoE is added in some of these layers to increase model capacity while keeping active parameter usage manageable. This flexible architecture allows ...
A new way to detect radiation involving cheap ceramics
In the current paper they show that gamma rays also modify the grain boundaries resulting in a faster flow of ions that, in turn, can be easily detected. And because the high-energy gamma rays penetrate much more deeply than UV light, "this extends the work to inexpensive bulk ceramics in addition to thin films," says Tuller.
About 1 in 4 public school teachers experienced a ...
Research Topics . Topics. ... (82 in 2023) and gun safety continues to be a topic in 2024 election campaigns. Teachers' experiences with lockdowns. About a quarter of teachers (23%) say they experienced a lockdown in the 2022-23 school year because of a gun or suspicion of a gun at their school. Some 15% say this happened once during the year ...
Trends and hot topics in linguistics studies from 2011 to 2021: A
High citations most often characterize quality research that reflects the foci of the discipline. This study aims to spotlight the most recent hot topics and the trends looming from the highly cited papers (HCPs) in Web of Science category of linguistics and language & linguistics with bibliometric analysis. The bibliometric information of the 143 HCPs based on Essential Citation Indicators ...
[2404.02258] Mixture-of-Depths: Dynamically allocating compute in
View a PDF of the paper titled Mixture-of-Depths: Dynamically allocating compute in transformer-based language models, by David Raposo and 5 other authors. View PDF HTML (experimental) Abstract: Transformer-based language models spread FLOPs uniformly across input sequences. In this work we demonstrate that transformers can instead learn to ...

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