nuclear pollution assignment

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Radioactive Pollution

Table of contents, introduction, what is radioactive pollution / radioactive contamination, how is radioactive pollution caused, examples of radioactive pollution.

Among the various other types of pollution, radioactive pollution is one of the most serious. In this article, we shall explore how radioactive pollution impacts human life as well as its repercussions on the environment.

Radioactive contamination is defined as the deposition or introduction of radioactive substances into the environment, where their presence is unintended, or the levels of radioactivity are undesirable. Such type of pollution is harmful to life due to the emission of ionizing radiation. This type of radiation is potent enough to cause damage to tissues and DNA in genes.

Radioactivity can occur in one of two ways:

• Naturally occurring radioactivity
• Man-made radioactivity

Natural radioactivity, as the name suggests, occurs naturally in our environment . Some radioactive elements such as uranium and thorium are present in rocks and soil, albeit in trace quantities. Interestingly, humans and all other living organisms contain nuclides such as carbon-14, which are created by cosmic rays.

Man-made radioactivity is the result of nuclear weapon discharge or a nuclear reactor containment breach. In such scenarios, all living organisms in the vicinity of the nuclear event will become contaminated by fission products and remnants of nuclear fuel. This can be in the form of radioactive dust or even particles that are found on various surfaces.

One of the most infamous cases that resulted in radioactive pollution was the Chernobyl disaster. Other examples include:

• Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Disaster
• Nuclear fallout (after atmospheric nuclear explosions)
• Criticality accidents

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Frequently Asked Questions on Radioactive Pollution

What is radioactive pollution.

Radioactive contamination is defined as the deposition or introduction of radioactive substances into the environment, where their presence is unintended, or the levels of radioactivity are undesirable.

Why is radioactive pollution dangerous?

Such type of pollution results in the emission of ionizing radiation. This type of radiation can cause damage to tissues and DNA in genes.

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• Published: 11 March 2024

Long-term, sustainable solutions to radioactive waste management

• Kristina Kvashnina 1 , 2 ,
• Francis Claret 3 ,
• Nicolas Clavier 4 ,
• Tatiana G. Levitskaia 5 ,
• Haruko Wainwright 6 &
• Tiankai Yao 7  

Scientific Reports volume  14 , Article number:  5907 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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• Geochemistry
• Nuclear waste

Nuclear power plays a pivotal role in ensuring a scalable, affordable, and reliable low-carbon electricity supply. Along with other low-carbon energy technologies, nuclear energy is essential for reducing our reliance on fossil fuels, addressing climate change and air pollution, and achieving a sustainable economy. Whilst significant progress has been made in reducing the volume of final radioactive waste, its management remains one of the most important challenges when considering the continued use and expansion of nuclear energy. This recently published collection highlights the latest technological and scientific advances aimed to improve the safe, long-term, and sustainable management of wastes produced from nuclear power generation.

Nuclear power is an ideal option for sustainable energy generation due to its long operating life and its ability to generate electricity with minimal greenhouse gas emissions. However, this form of energy generation produces radioactive waste that must be either securely stored and disposed or subjected to reprocessing. Long-term, sustainable solutions for radioactive waste management require a combination of technical expertise, regulatory oversight, and ongoing research to ensure the safe containment and ultimate disposal.

One approach is to establish deep geological repositories in stable geological formations. These repositories should be designed to isolate radioactive waste from the environment for thousands of years. In this context, Finkeldei, Huitinnen and colleagues investigated zirconia (ZrO 2 ) formed on spent nuclear fuel rod cladding and demonstrated its potential as an engineered barrier for immobilizing radionuclides 1 . They achieved this by structurally incorporating Eu 3+ and Cm 3+ into zirconia and analyzed the materials using complementary methods, including powder X-ray diffraction (PXRD), spectrum imaging analysis based on energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy in scanning transmission electron microscopy mode (STEM-EDXS), and luminescence spectroscopy. They showed that zirconia could be a suitable technical retention barrier for mobilized trivalent actinides in deep geological repositories.

Ceramic materials are also considered as leading candidate waste forms for the immobilization and geological disposal of long-lived actinides. In this collection, Corkhill et al. 2 investigated titanate ceramics with the pyrochlore structure using photoemission and X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) and showed the possibility of chemical flexibility in terms of crystal-chemical design principles of pyrochlore structure. Additionally, Corkhill et al. 3 explored the mineral brannerite UTi 2 O 6 as a possible host phase for the immobilization of long-lived actinides, such as plutonium. Their investigation demonstrated that the ThTi 2 O 6 brannerite structure can incorporate a small fraction of U 6+ alongside a more significant inventory of U 5+ , achieved through charge compensation on the Th or Ti site. Blackburn et al. 4 conducted research on zirconolite as a candidate waste form material for immobilizing actinides from spent nuclear fuel. They considered indium as a neutron-absorbing additive to mitigate criticality in ceramic waste forms. The recorded K-edge spectroscopy data on In and Zr provide valuable information about the coordination environment and oxidation states of In and Zr, contributing to the performance testing of titanate waste form materials. Anionic clays like hydrotalcites are being explored, but their ability to serve as a durable repository for long-term actinide isolation is uncertain. Douglas and co-authors 5 showed that nanoscale hydrotalcite efficiently captured radionuclides, suggesting a potential rapid decontamination and long-term containment solution. Finally, spent nuclear fuel itself can be considered as a suitable wasteform, leading to its direct storage in geological repositories. In this context, Vinograd and co-workers 6 questioned the reactivity of Ln-doped UO 2 samples, as model compounds for SNF, towards oxidation in air. They showed that the partitioning of lanthanide cations between the original fluorite-type phase and the oxidized U 3 O 8 enhanced the resistivity to oxidation, thus contributing to the chemical durability of the ceramic.

Investing in fundamental research and the development of new technologies for waste treatment and disposal can lead to more efficient and cost-effective methods. Our collection features several articles on fundamental science, with a particular focus on investigating the electronic structure of actinide materials, which plays a significant role in radioactive waste management. Butorin and his co-authors 7 conducted research on americium oxide, an important component of the nuclear fuel cycle, using soft XAS and electronic structure calculations. Their study revealed that AmO 2 can be classified as a charge-transfer compound with a 5f. occupancy of 5.73 electrons, while Am 2 O 3 exhibits characteristics of a Mott–Hubbard system with a 5f occupancy of 6.05.

Investigating nuclear accidents is crucial for improving nuclear waste solutions because it enhances safety, reduces risks, strengthens regulations, drives technological advancements, and encourages international cooperation to address the challenges of nuclear waste management. Poliakova et al. 8 studied uranium oxides, which can disperse into the environment in various forms following different accidental scenarios. The team investigated the behavior of uranium oxide particles, which could be easily ingested by humans and animals in the vicinity of a contaminated area. Using several experimental methods, they observed structural changes in mixed uranium oxides, specifically UO 2, U 4 O 9 , U 3 O 8 and UO 3 , before and after exposure in simulated biological fluids (gastro-intestinal and lung). The most significant changes were observed in U 4 O 9 . This study heavily utilized XAS techniques at synchrotron sources, highlighting the crucial role of synchrotron radiation in nuclear waste research.

Understanding the chemical forms, defects, crystal structures, and other properties of radioactive materials is crucial before the construction of a final geological repository. While underpinning radionuclides speciation is a key asset to dive its mobility, reactive transport code allow to model their behavior on a long term scale. Tournassat et al. 9 have developed a user-friendly numerical reactive transport approach in order to tackle diffusion experiment in a smarter way. Reactive transport is a powerful tools but when uncertainty analysis have to be conducted, the computing cost could be a limiting factor. To overcome this issue surrogate model can be used. Turunen and Lipping 10 have built surrogate models using convolutional neural networks and used the meta model for a sensitivity analysis of the radionuclide transport models. In a separate work, Butorin and the team 11 investigated the effect of carbon content on the electronic structure of uranium carbides through a combination of XAS and density functional theory that takes 5f–5f Coulomb interaction U and spin–orbit coupling (DFT + U + SOC) into consideration. The results revealed an increase amount of 5f electrons in UC 2 as compared to UC, which will impact the thermodynamic properties and eventually on the carbide nuclear fuel performance.

Transmutation of radionuclides have been considered as one of the potential solutions for managing high-level radioactive waste. Sun et al. 12 proposed a new framework to transmute not only minor actinides but also long-lived fission products based on lead-cooled fact reactors. Using OpenMC, the optimal MA loading is evaluated based on the operation of the core, the neutron fux distribution, spectra, and k eff . They have shown the premise of transmuting mobile and key radionuclides for geological disposal such as Tc-99, with the higher transmutation rate than 15%. One more aspect, as proper decommissioning of nuclear facilities and reactors, followed by the management of resulting waste, is a critical component of long-term solutions. In this field, different strategies can be envisaged to lower both the volume and the radiotoxicity of the waste. The first one lies on the reprocessing of spent fuel in order to separate the different isotopes to offer targeted solutions for their storage. In this frame, Pilgrim et al. 13 proposed novel aminocarboxylate chelators providing highly efficient complexation of trivalent lanthanides and minor actinides. They particularly studied structural modifications of the ligands that increased their solubility without influencing their ability to complex lanthanides and minor actinides in solution.

Overall, we believe there are many key aspects which play a role in finding long-term solutions for radioactive waste. Proper classification of radioactive waste based on its characteristics and levels of radioactivity is essential. Strict safety standards and regulations are crucial to safeguard workers, the public, and the environment. Radioactive waste management often involves international cooperation, as some countries may not have the resources or expertise to manage their waste independently. Our collection reflects the international collaboration between scientists in different fields and in world-wide locations.

Opitz, L. et al. Investigations towards incorporation of Eu3+ and Cm3+ during ZrO2 crystallization in aqueous solution. Sci. Rep. 13 (1), 12276. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-39143-0 (2023).

Article   ADS   CAS   PubMed   PubMed Central   Google Scholar  

Sun, S.-K. et al. Crystal chemical design, synthesis and characterisation of U(IV)-dominant betafite phases for actinide immobilisation. Sci. Rep. 13 (1), 10328. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-36571-w (2023).

Dixon Wilkins, M. C. et al. A multimodal X-Ray spectroscopy investigation of uranium speciation in ThTi2O6 compounds with the brannerite structure. Sci. Rep. 13 (1), 12776. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-38912-1 (2023).

Blackburn, L. R. et al. Underpinning the use of indium as a neutron absorbing additive in zirconolite by X-ray absorption spectroscopy. Sci. Rep. 13 (1), 9329. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-34619-5 (2023).

Douglas, G. B. et al. Engineered mineralogical interfaces as radionuclide repositories. Sci. Rep. 13 (1), 2121. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-29171-1 (2023).

Vinograd, V. L., Bukaemskiy, A. A., Deissmann, G. & Modolo, G. Thermodynamic model of the oxidation of Ln-doped UO2. Sci. Rep. 13 (1), 17944. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-42616-x (2023).

Butorin, S. M. & Shuh, D. K. Chemical bonding in americium oxides probed by X-ray spectroscopy. Sci. Rep. 13 (1), 11607. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-38505-y (2023).

Poliakova, T. et al. Uranium oxides structural transformation in human body liquids. Sci. Rep. 13 (1), 4088. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-31059-z (2023).

Tournassat, C., Steefel, C. I., Fox, P. M. & Tinnacher, R. M. Resolving experimental biases in the interpretation of diffusion experiments with a user-friendly numerical reactive transport approach. Sci. Rep. 13 (1), 15029. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-42260-5 (2023).

Turunen, J. & Lipping, T. Feasibility of neural network metamodels for emulation and sensitivity analysis of radionuclide transport models. Sci. Rep. 13 (1), 6985. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-34089-9 (2023).

Butorin, S. M. et al. Effect of carbon content on electronic structure of uranium carbides. Sci. Rep. 13 (1), 20434. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-47579-7 (2023).

Sun, X. Y. et al. Transmutation of MAs and LLFPs with a lead-cooled fast reactor. Sci. Rep. 13 (1), 1693. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-29002-3 (2023).

Pilgrim, C. D. et al. Tuning aminopolycarboxylate chelators for efficient complexation of trivalent actinides. Sci. Rep. 13 (1), 17855. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-44106-6 (2023).

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Institute of Resource Ecology, Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf, Bautzner Landstrasse 400, 01328, Dresden, Germany

Kristina Kvashnina

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Francis Claret

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Nicolas Clavier

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, 902 Battelle Blvd, Richland, WA, 99354, USA

Tatiana G. Levitskaia

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA

Haruko Wainwright

Idaho National Laboratory, Idaho Falls, ID, 83415, USA

Tiankai Yao

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Kvashnina, K., Claret, F., Clavier, N. et al. Long-term, sustainable solutions to radioactive waste management. Sci Rep 14 , 5907 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-55911-y

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What Is Nuclear Pollution, Its Effects, and Its Control Measures?

by Dr. Emily Greenfield | Feb 9, 2023 | Nuclear Pollution , Pollution

Table of Contents

What Is Nuclear Pollution?

Nuclear pollution is sometimes also referred to as radioactive contamination. It is the deposition or presence of radioactive materials within solids, liquids, gases, or on surfaces. Their presence within these bodies may be undesirable or unintentional. Today, however, we commonly refer to nuclear pollution as pollution of the atmosphere by radiation or radioactive particles.

Before we go on to understand nuclear pollution, let’s take a small physics lesson about radioactivity. Some elements in nature are unstable in their natural state. Therefore, the atoms of these elements have an unstable nucleus. To achieve stability, the nucleus will begin releasing radiation. We call this phenomenon radioactive decay or radioactivity. How does this relate to nuclear pollution and nuclear power? Well, we obtain nuclear energy through radioactivity. We call it nuclear energy because it is the energy released from the nucleus of the atom. In short, radioactively decaying particles provide us with nuclear energy.

The decaying of radioactive particles releases alpha, beta, gamma rays, and free neutrons. These particles are ionizing radiation. They are incredibly harmful to human health and the environment.

The degree of hazard these particles pose depends on their concentration in the atmosphere, the type of radiation they emit, the energy or intensity of the radiation, and their proximity to animals, plants, and humans. The instability of these particles seriously and severely damages human, plant, and animal life.

Causes of Nuclear Pollution

Nuclear power production almost always causes nuclear pollution. Of course, nuclear plants try to limit the number of radioactive contaminants they release. But, radioactive material and nuclear waste still find a way to enter the environment.

1. Nuclear Waste Disposal

Nuclear plants use fuel to run. When the plant cannot use that fuel any longer, it must dispose of the spent fuel. Most nuclear fuels have a half-life of up to four billion years. It means that the energy can remain radioactive for up to four billion years!

When we humans first discovered and started using nuclear energy, a lot of the nuclear waste would end up in the oceans. Even today, we continue to dump our nuclear waste in the seas. The Pacific Ocean is a famous nuclear waste dumping ground for many countries.

Apart from dumping it in oceans, some nuclear plants store their spent fuel in underground pools. Nuclear fuel is hot and needs to cool before it can be disposed of. However, storing nuclear waste underground puts groundwater and the surrounding land at risk of contamination. If the surrounding area is cropland, radioactive materials can enter the crops and, ultimately, our food chain.

2. Nuclear Accidents

We find some of the most concentrated areas of nuclear pollution in the region surrounding accidents at nuclear power plants. History has witnessed only a handful of such events. But the effects are catastrophic and prevail many years after the accident.

Many will remember the Chornobyl nuclear disaster of 1986 as one of the most infamous and devastating nuclear accidents. The disaster occurred in modern-day Ukraine. The failure of a nuclear reactor destroyed the entire nuclear plant. Eastern Europe witnessed air pollution caused by the release of hazardous, radioactive materials. It affected thousands of people. Many people died from exposure to radioactivity from the Chornobyl reactor.

3. Nuclear Weapons

The Second World War saw the extensive use of nuclear weapons by countries. We will all recall when our history professor explained how the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were destroyed by atomic bombs. Since the Second World War, countries have been racing to develop nuclear weapons in the name of defense.

Countries test their nuclear weapons by firing them into the atmosphere. The explosion in the atmosphere returns back debris to the Earth as radiation. When this radiation settles on vegetation and in our seas and oceans, it enters the food chain.

The Effects of Nuclear Pollution

The radiation from nuclear pollution has enough energy to damage living cells and their DNA. The cells in our body are capable of repairing this damage. However, if our bodies fail to repair the damage correctly, cells may die or eventually turn cancerous.

Being exposed to extremely high levels of radiation can result in skin burns and acute radiation syndrome (also known as radiation sickness). High radiation levels can also cause long-term health effects like cancer and cardiovascular disease.

Exposure to low radiation levels does not result in immediate health effects. However, it is a minor contributor to our overall cancer risk.

Exposure to a high level of radiation within a short time span causes symptoms such as nausea and vomiting. These symptoms may appear within hours of exposure. But it may result in death over the following days or weeks. This is what scientists call acute radiation syndrome or radiation sickness.

The level of radiation required to develop acute radiation syndrome is equivalent to getting 18,000 chest X-rays within a few minutes. Acute radiation syndrome is extremely rare. Scientists mainly observe the syndrome in people exposed to a nuclear explosion or in the vicinity of a highly radioactive source rupture.

Studies conducted on numerous atomic bomb survivors and radiation industry workers have shown that radiation exposure increases the chance of getting cancer. The higher the dose of exposure, the greater the risk of developing cancer.

Nuclear Pollution Control Measures

1. Containment of Nuclear Waste

Nuclear radiation is a form of heat transfer. While radiation can occur in almost any condition, heat increases the amount of radiation. More radiation means a higher health risk. Scientists recently found that apart from the ash released from nuclear plants, even coal ash, and wood ash contain radiation because of their heat. Therefore, we must store nuclear waste in cool places, away from a heat source.

2. Law Enforcement

We need laws that protect human health and the environment from nuclear and radioactive radiation. Federal agencies in every country must establish radiation exposure standards and limits. National governments must also develop standards for nuclear power plants. They must implement strict actions against nuclear plants for failing to comply with environmental and health regulations.

3. Individual Prevention Measures

You should regularly test your home for radon. The internet can find you many consulting services and inexpensive testing kits.

If you’re buying a new home, make sure it is away from primary sources of radiation and nuclear pollution.

Dr. Emily Greenfield is a highly accomplished environmentalist with over 30 years of experience in writing, reviewing, and publishing content on various environmental topics. Hailing from the United States, she has dedicated her career to raising awareness about environmental issues and promoting sustainable practices.

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Nuclear reactors and power plants have complex safety and security features

An uncontrolled nuclear reaction in a nuclear reactor could result in widespread contamination of air and water. The risk of this happening at nuclear power plants in the United States is small because of the diverse and redundant barriers and safety systems in place at nuclear power plants, the training and skills of the reactor operators, testing and maintenance activities, and the regulatory requirements and oversight of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. A large area surrounding a nuclear power plant is restricted and guarded by armed security teams. U.S. reactors also have containment vessels that are designed to withstand extreme weather events and earthquakes.

A containment dome on a nuclear reactor

Source: Stock photography (copyrighted)

did you know

Nuclear reactors in the United States may have large concrete domes covering the reactor. A containment structure is required to contain accidental releases of radiation. Not all nuclear power plants have cooling towers. Some nuclear power plants use water from lakes, rivers, or the ocean for cooling.

Nuclear power reactors do not produce direct carbon dioxide emissions

Unlike fossil fuel-fired power plants, nuclear reactors do not produce air pollution or carbon dioxide while operating. However, the processes for mining and refining uranium ore and making reactor fuel all require large amounts of energy. Nuclear power plants also have large amounts of metal and concrete, which require large amounts of energy to manufacture. If fossil fuels are used for mining and refining uranium ore, or if fossil fuels are used when constructing the nuclear power plant, then the emissions from burning those fuels could be associated with the electricity that nuclear power plants generate.

Nuclear energy produces radioactive waste

A major environmental concern related to nuclear power is the creation of radioactive wastes such as uranium mill tailings, spent (used) reactor fuel, and other radioactive wastes. These materials can remain radioactive and dangerous to human health for thousands of years. Radioactive wastes are subject to special regulations that govern their handling, transportation, storage, and disposal to protect human health and the environment. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) regulates the operation of nuclear power plants.

Radioactive wastes are classified as low-level waste or high-level waste. The radioactivity of these wastes can range from a little higher than natural background levels, such as for uranium mill tailings, to the much higher radioactivity of used (spent) reactor fuel and parts of nuclear reactors. The radioactivity of nuclear waste decreases over time through a process called radioactive decay. The amount of time it takes for the radioactivity of radioactive material to decrease to half its original level is called the radioactive half-life. Radioactive waste with a short half-life is often stored temporarily before disposal to reduce potential radiation doses to workers who handle and transport the waste. This storage system also reduces the radiation levels at disposal sites.

By volume, most of the waste related to the nuclear power industry has a relatively low level of radioactivity. Uranium mill tailings contain the radioactive element radium, which decays to produce the radioactive gas radon. Most uranium mill tailings are placed near the processing facility, or mill , where they come from. Uranium mill tailings are covered with a sealing barrier of material such as clay to prevent radon from escaping into the atmosphere. The sealing barrier is covered by a layer of soil, rocks, or other materials to prevent erosion of the sealing barrier.

The other types of low-level radioactive waste are the tools, protective clothing, wiping cloths, and other disposable items that become contaminated with small amounts of radioactive dust or particles at nuclear fuel processing facilities and nuclear power plants. These materials are subject to special regulations for their handling, storage, and disposal so they will not come in contact with the outside environment.

High-level radioactive waste consists of irradiated , or spent , nuclear reactor fuel (fuel that is no longer useful for producing electricity). The spent reactor fuel is in a solid form, consisting of small fuel pellets in long metal tubes called rods.

Spent reactor fuel storage and reactor decommissioning

Spent reactor fuel assemblies are highly radioactive and, initially, must be stored in specially designed pools of water. The water cools the fuel and acts as a radiation shield. Spent reactor fuel assemblies can also be stored in specially designed dry storage containers. An increasing number of reactor operators now store their older spent fuel in dry storage facilities using special outdoor concrete or steel containers with air cooling. The United States does not currently have a permanent disposal facility for high-level nuclear waste.

When a nuclear reactor stops operating, it must be decommissioned. Decommissioning involves safely removing from service the reactor and all equipment that has become radioactive and reducing radioactivity to a level that permits other uses of the property. The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission has strict rules governing nuclear power plant decommissioning that involve cleanup of radioactively contaminated power plant systems and structures and removing the radioactive fuel.

A dry storage cask for spent nuclear reactor fuel

Some spent fuel storage canisters are designed to be placed vertically in robust above-ground concrete or steel structures.

Source: U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (Public Domain)

Last updated: November 7, 2022

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Nuclear pollution: essay on nuclear pollution and its impact on environment.

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Nuclear Pollution: Essay on Nuclear Pollution and its Impact on Environment!

Any undesirable effect caused to the environment due to radioactive substances or radiations is called nuclear pollution. Major source is the Nuclear power plants. If traces of the radioactive substances are present in the water that is released from the plant, it will cause nuclear pollution. Emission of radiations can also cause this kind of pollution.

It affects almost all life forms in the surrounding environment. From planktons to Human beings nothing is spared. To be more specific, the radiations can cause mutations that lead to cancer, and the dose of radiation or the level of pollution determines lethality or how deadly it is.

However, nuclear pollution is extremely hazardous in nature. It occurs as a result of nuclear explosions that are performed while conducting nuclear tests. These nuclear tests are carried out to invent better nuclear weapons. The explosions cause release of 15 to 20% radioactive material into the stratosphere.

On entering this layer, they start falling into the earth’s atmosphere. This fall can take anywhere from 6months to several years. 5% of these radioactive particles enter troposphere, which is the lowest layer of the atmosphere.

The smallest particles of the radioactive material are called fallout. The fallout settles on the leaves of plants and trees. These leaves are eaten by the grazing animals. Radioactive material now enters the ecosystem.

Humans consume these particles through the process of food chain. Serious health problems now arise. Ingestion of radioactive material can lead to cancer and genetic mutation in humans. Fallouts that do not drop on leaves accumulate over the sea. This can be harmful for the sea life, which ultimately affects the humans.

It isn’t necessary that only nuclear power stations cause nuclear pollution. Even other industries, not related to nuclear power production, can also contribute to it. Coal has small amounts of radioactive material in the form of uranium and thorium. These do not bum completely and become part of fly ash. Even while producing oil and gas, radium and similar elements are released in to the air.

Radioactive contamination or nuclear pollution is the most dangerous for the environment since the wastes maintain their radioactive properties for thousands of years. There is no way to have them assimilated in the soil, water or the air in the initial form.

Reprocessing is solution we have to extent of nuclear pollution and clean the planet increasingly residues. The highest likelihood of radioactive elements reaching open environment is by accident during the transportation to the reprocessing plants located in some parts of the globe. Reprocessing in itself causes other pollution problems adding other risks to an already fragile environment condition.

Presently, no country has efficiently solved the issue of nuclear pollution in terms of radioactive waste storage. Every state would like to send the residues to some other place and be rid of them, while no truly viable conclusion is reached.

Storage facilities as such require highly intransigent security and safety rules, periodical checks and regular updates on the storage environment. A responsible management of the nuclear waste would limit the risk of nuclear pollution on the long term, allowing us to live on a cleaner and safer planet, also preventing the temptation of dumping the waste in the oceans.

Nuclear pollution is not the only hazard that comes together with the use of radioactive energy: mass populations are jeopardized on a current basis if something happens to a reactor, as it was the case with the Russian Chernobyl for instance.

There are other energy sources that are still highly effective without the huge risks of nuclear pollution or irradiation: geothermal sources, ocean currents, tidal waves, wind and waterfalls, all make alternative power solutions that should not be neglected. Environment-friendly electricity is one of the chances this planet has to survive.

Fish and ocean plants are highly contaminated due to nuclear pollution; Greenpeace has repeatedly signaled out the huge amount of plutonium effluents produced by the nuclear plant on the coasts of England, for instance. Lobsters in the area have been found to be contaminated, hence the effects not only on humans but on the entire ecosystem is devastating.

Attempts have been by an American company to even built a radioactive storage facility on Marshall Islands, ignoring the even higher potential threats for nuclear pollution under the circumstances of a growing sea level. Such solutions may appear convenient from a certain perspective, but when considered from a wider point of view, irresponsibility is obvious.

Nuclear Power Plants :

Nuclear power is power, generally electrical produced from controlled, that is non-explosive nuclear reactions. Electric utility reactors heat water to produce steam, which is then used to generate electricity. In 2009, 15% of the world’s electricity came from nuclear power, despite concerns about safety and radioactive waste management.

More than 150 naval vessels using nuclear propulsion have been built. Nuclear fusion reactions are widely believed to be safer than fission and appear potentially viable, though technically quite difficult and have yet to be created on a scale that could be used in a functional power plant. Fusion power has been under intense theoretical and experimental investigation for many years.

Both fission and fusion appear promising for some space propulsion applications in the mid- to distant-future, using low thrust for long durations to achieve high mission velocities. Radioactive decay has been used on a relatively small (few kW) scale, mostly to power space missions and experiments. As of 2005, nuclear power provided 2.1% of the world’s energy and 15% of the world’s electricity, with the U.S., France, and Japan together accounting for 56.5% of nuclear generated electricity.

Nuclear Radiation :

Radiation is really nothing more than the emission of energy waves through space, as well as through physical objects. Usually these energy waves are electromagnetic radiation which is classified into Radio waves, Infrared waves, visible light, Ultraviolet waves, X-ray, Gamma rays and Cosmic rays.

The actual radioactivity is a result of radioactive decay. The three types of radiation with varying abilities to penetrate objects or bodies are: Alpha, Beta, and Gamma radiation. You can shield yourself from alpha radiation by something as flimsy as a sheet of paper. Beta rays need six millimeters of aluminum and gamma rays are stopped by dense material only, like lead.

These travel easily through an inch of lead. And the higher you are in the Earth’s atmosphere the more exposed you are to these rays because the further they travel into our atmosphere the more they are slowed down. Astronauts are exposed to high levels of cosmic radiation.

Disasters and Impacts :

It is considered to be the worst nuclear power plant disaster in history and the only level 7 event on the International Nuclear Event Scale. It resulted in a severe release of radioactivity following a massive power excursion that destroyed the reactor.

Most fatalities from the accident were caused by radiation poisoning. On April 26, 1986 at 01:23 a.m. (UTC+3), reactor number four at the Chernobyl plant, near Pripyat in the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic, had a fatal meltdown.

Further explosions and the resulting fire sent a plume of highly radioactive fallout into the atmosphere and over an extensive geographical area, including the nearby town of Pripyat. Four hundred times more fallout was released than had been by the atomic bombing of Hiroshima. The plume drifted over large parts of the western Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, Western Europe, and Northern Europe. Rain contaminated with radioactive material fell as far away as Ireland.

Large areas in Ukraine, Belarus, and Russia were badly contaminated, resulting in the evacuation and resettlement of over 336,000 people. According to official post-Soviet data, about 60% of the radioactive fallout landed in Belarus. The accident raised concerns about the safety of the Soviet nuclear power industry as well as nuclear power in general, slowing its expansion for a number of years while forcing the Soviet government to become less secretive.

The countries of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus have been burdened with the continuing and substantial decontamination and health care costs of the Chernobyl accident. It is difficult to accurately quantify the number of deaths caused by the events at Chernobyl, as over time it becomes harder to determine whether a death has been caused by exposure to radiation.

The 2005 report prepared by the Chernobyl Forum, led by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) and World Health Organization (WHO), attributed 56 direct deaths (47 accident workers and nine children with thyroid cancer) and estimated that there may be 4,000 (questioned, could be higher) extra cancer deaths among the approximately 600,000 most highly exposed people.

Although the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone and certain limited areas remain off limits, the majority of affected areas are now considered safe for settlement and economic activity. The Chernobyl station is near the town of Pripyat, Ukraine, 18 km (11 mi) northwest of the city of Chernobyl, 16 km (10 mi) from the border of Ukraine and Belarus and about 110 km (68 mi) north of Kiev.

The station consisted of four RBMK-1000 nuclear reactors, each capable of producing 1 gig watt (GW) of electric power and the four together produced about 10% of Ukraine’s electricity at the time of the accident. Construction of the plant began in the late 1970s, with reactor no. 1 commissioned in 1977, followed by no. 2 (1978), no. 3 (1981), and no. 4 (1983). Two more reactors, no. 5 and 6, also capable of producing 1 GW each, were under construction at the time of the disaster.

Nuclear power has developed into a mature and commercial reality with its part of success and threats. Although nuclear power can be used to generate electricity in an environment friendly manner, it is a subject of controversies owing to the threats related to it. Nuclear power has positive as well as negative impacts on people, society and environment Positive Impacts on People.

The potential of nuclear power has been recognized by people. It is capable of providing unlimited and easily accessible energy. Due to the depletion in reserves of fossil fuels, costs of fuels and power is increasing at a fast pace which is directly affecting the people. Besides, the use of fossil fuels results in production of harmful oxides of carbon and nitrogen which have an adverse effect on the health of humans causing diseases like asthma, cancer, etc.

Use of nuclear power does not produce these harmful gases which will thus reduce health problems of people. Also nuclear power is more economical than other sources like oil, coal, etc. Usage of nuclear power will help people to be independent in terms of energy and thus progress. France is comfortable using nuclear power for domestic as well as industrial purposes since it does not want to depend on other nations for its fuel supply and it is cheapest source of energy.

The nuclear power can be used for electrification, industrial uses and heating purpose. Any organization can use nuclear power which is economic and more reliable than other energy sources. Also it is free of green house gases and thus helps an organization in meeting set standards regarding gas emissions with ease. Thus it results in enhanced productivity and economic growth.

Related Articles:

• Problems Associated with Nuclear Hazards
• Dangers from Nuclear Power Plants and Nuclear Reactors

Nuclear Pollution

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Environmental Pollution [Environmental Studies Notes BCOM/BA/BSC 2nd SEM CBCS Pattern]

Unit 5: environmental pollution (8 lectures), environmental studies notes for ba, b.com and bsc cbcs pattern.

• Environmental pollution: types, causes, effects and controls; Air, water, soil and noise pollution

• Nuclear hazards and human health risks

• Solid waste management: Control measures of urban and industrial waste.

• Pollution case studies – Bharalu river, Deepor Beel, Kolong river

**************

Table of Contents

Soil Pollution

Land is an important component of environment because soil is vital for the substances of life on earth. An inch of soil takes about 500 to 1000 years to be build. It is estimated that the total surface area of earth is 3,15,14,640 square km out of which only about one third is land surface. It is a resource for which there is no substitute. So, it becomes necessary to protect soil from pollutants.

Soil pollution can be more dangerous than other types of pollution. Soil pollution is defined as the presence of toxic chemicals (pollutants or contaminants) in soil, in high enough concentrations to pose risk to human health and ecosystem. Soil pollution is the adverse alternation in the properties of the soil due to dumping of solid and semi-solid waste from agriculture, industry and urban areas. It also results because of washing down of pollutants by rain and faulty sanitation in the soil.

Sources of Soil Pollution

a) Agrochemicals: The application of inorganic fertilisers to crop lands and the use of toxic insecticides, pesticides, fungicides etc. for controlling diseases have an adverse impact of soil.

b) Industrial waste: The rapid growth of industries has resulted in the release of a lot of industrial waste on the land surface. The quality of those wastes depends on the types of raw materials and chemicals used in the industries. The toxic chemicals are absorbed by the green plants along with the nutrients and enter into the food chain and finally reaching the human being causing health hazards.

c) Domestic Garbage: Plastics are mainly used as packing materials which are normally thrown away as garbage. This garbage is pile up at public places which creates disposal problem.

d) Petroleum wastes: Contamination of soil by petroleum products is a major cause of soil pollution in several countries in the world.

e) Electric Waste: Electronic waste like cell phones, computers, gadgets, printers, radio, camera, video games, scanners, DVDs, Land phones etc. are non-biodegradable waste which is generally dumped in soil.

Measures to Control Soil Pollution

Since soil is vital for life, these should be protected from pollution. Some important measures to control soil pollution are:

a) Agro-chemicals should be used with caution in the field. Organic manure should be used instead of agro-chemicals.

b) Use of bio-fertilizers should be encouraged instead of chemical fertilizers.

c) Industrial effluents should be properly treated before discharging them on the soil. The effluents released should be subjected to proper treatment before their release into land mass.

d) The garbage produced should be dumped in closed chamber.

e) Adequate latrine facility should be provided in rural and urban areas.

f) Public awareness programmes should be implemented to educate people on health hazards due to soil pollution. Prevention of erosion and silting.

g) People should be trained regarding proper sanitary practices.

h) Application of pesticides should be controlled.

i) Bioremediation can be adopted for degradation of toxic chemicals present in soil.

Effects of Soil Pollution

a) Industrial wastes consist of a variety of chemicals which are extremely toxic. Chemical like acids, alkalis, pesticides, heavy metals etc. affect soil fertility and ultimately affect human health.

b) Nitrogen and phosphorus from the fertilizers in soil reach nearby water bodies with agricultural run-off and cause eutrophication.

c) Excess use of chemical fertilizers may result in reducing the ability of plants to fix nitrogen.

d) Pollutants in soil cause alteration in soil structure, causing death of many soil organisms which can affect the food chain.

e) Decline in the microorganisms found in the soil creating additional problems of soil erosion.

f) Contamination of underground and surface drinking water.

Water Pollution

Water is undoubtedly the most precious natural resource that exists on our planet. It is essential for the survival of any form of life. Lakes, rivers, seas and groundwater are the main source of water. Water pollution  is the  pollution  of bodies of  water , such as lakes, rivers, seas, the oceans, as well as groundwater. It occurs when  pollutants reach these bodies of  water , without treatment. Waste from homes, factories and other buildings are main pollutant of the  water  bodies.

Sources of Water Pollution:  

a) Domestic wastes if they are not properly treated and released into water bodies cause serious water pollution.

b) Industrial wastes such as Toxic chemicals, acids, alkalis, metallic salts, phenols, cyanides are released into water bodies causes thermal pollution of water.

c) Agricultural pollutants such as excessive nutrients, ammonia and nitrates, pathogens, antibiotics and hormones.

d) Run off from urban areas such as rainfall and snowmelt can wash natural and man-made pollutants into rivers, lakes, wetlands, and coastal waters.

e) Oil pollution

f) Radioactive waste produced during industrial, medical and scientific processes.

Effects of Water Pollution

Domestic and hospital sewage contain many undesirable pathogenic microorganisms, and its disposal into a water without proper treatment may cause outbreak of serious diseases, such as, amoebiasis dysentery, typhoid, jaundice, cholera, etc. Metals like  lead, zinc, arsenic, copper, mercury  and  cadmium in industrial waste waters adversely affect humans and other animals. Some of the serious effects of water pollution are listed below:

a) Drinking contaminated water causes health problems like cancer, reproductive problems, typhoid fever, stomach sickness and skin rashes in humans.

b) Excess fluoride in water causes defects in teeth and bones called fluorosis, while arsenic can cause significant damage to the liver and nervous system.

c) Oil spills in the water cause animals to die when they ingest or encounter it.

d) Excess radioactive materials in water cause genetic mutations, birth defects and cancer.

e) Excess sediments in water cause cloudiness reducing photosynthetic ability, which disrupts the aquatic food chain.

Control of water pollution

a) The first and most important step in controlling water pollution is to Increase public education and awareness around the world concerning the causes and impacts of water pollution.

b) Government initiatives like Swachh Bharat Mission helps in reducing domestic wastes.

c) Setting up effluent treatment plants to treat waste water.

d) Laws, standards and practices should be established to prevent water pollution and these laws should be modified from time to time based on current requirements and technological advancements.

e) Planting more trees will reduce the amount of sulphur dioxide and nitric oxide.

f) Industrial plants should be based on recycling operations as it helps prevent disposal of wastes into natural waters but also extraction of products from waste.

g) Thermal pollution can be reduced by employing techniques like cooling ponds, wet/dry cooling towers etc.

Air Pollution

We all breathe in air, we can feel, and even smell the air and say whether it is fresh or stale. The pollution in air may not be noticed until we see smoke coming out from some source. All human activities from cooking at home to activities in highly mechanized industries contribute to air pollution.

The World Health Organization defines air pollution as “the presence of materials in the air in such concentration which are harmful to man and his environment.”

In Simple words, it is the occurrence or addition of foreign particles, gases and other pollutants into the air which have an adverse effect on human beings, animals, vegetation, buildings, etc.

Air Pollutants

Pollutants are classified into primary and secondary pollutants.

Primary pollutants: they are emitted into the atmosphere directly from the source and retains the same chemical form. Examples are carbon monoxide, sulphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons, suspended particulate matter(SPM).

Secondary pollutants: they are formed by the inter mingling and reactions of primary pollutants. Examples are photochemical smog, acid rain, PAN etc.

Sources and causes of Air Pollution

The sources of air pollution are classified into two groups: Natural and Man- made sources.

(a) Natural sources:

1)     Volcanic eruption: releasing poisonous gases like SO2, H2S, CO etc.

2)    Forest fires: Very large quantities of smoke and particulate matter are liberated during their breakout.

3)     Decomposition of organic and inorganic substances: Methane gas, carbon dioxide is released into the air.

4)     Dust: Dust is always present in the atmosphere in varying amount.

(b) Manmade sources:

1)    Deforestation.

2)     Burning of fossil fuels.

3)     Emission from vehicles.

4)     Rapid industrialization.

5)     Modern agricultural practices.

Effects of Air Pollution

Air pollution is very dangerous for health. Some of the adverse effects of air pollution are given below:

1. Air pollution affects our respiratory system and causes breathing difficulties.

2. Diseases such as bronchitis, asthma, lung cancer, tuberculosis and pneumonia caused due to air pollution.

3. Increased concentration of carbon dioxide in atmosphere causes global warming.

4. Air pollution causes acid rain which damages crop plants, trees and buildings. It also makes the soil acidic.

5. Ozone layer depletion due to air pollution which allows ultraviolet radiation to reach the earth. Such radiation causes various skin and eye diseases.

6. Excess nitrogen oxides in the atmosphere results in respiratory problems and bronchitis.

Measures to Control Air Pollution

Air pollution can control from the following points:

1. A raw material for feedstock should be renewable rather than depleting.

2. Better designed equipment and smokeless fuels should be used in houses and industries. Less polluting fuels should be used.

3. Growing plants capable of fixing carbon monoxide. Example: Phaseolus vulgaris, Daucus carota.

4. Growing plants capable of metabolizing nitrogen oxides and other gaseous pollutants. Example: Vitis, Pimis, Pyrus etc.

5. Use of non-conventional sources of energy should be encouraged.

6. Use of public transport to control fuel consumption.

7. Automobiles should be properly maintained and adhere to emission control standards.

8. Proper Environmental Impact Assessment for any developmental work must be done.

Environmental Studies  MCQs  Multiple Choice Questions and Answers

➡ Top 100 Environmental Studies MCQs

Environmental Studies  Chapterwise  Notes

➡ Unit 1: Introduction to Environmental Studies

➡ Unit 2: Ecosystems

➡ Unit 3: Natural Resources: Types, Renewable and Non-renewable Resources

➡ Unit 4: Biodiversity and Conservation (Available in DTS App – Only for Members)

➡ Unit 5: Environmental Pollution

➡ Unit 6: Social Issues and the Environment

➡ Unit 7: Environmental Policies & Practices

➡ Unit 8: Human Communities and the Environment

➡ Unit 9: Field work

Environmental Studies  Question Papers 

➡ Dibrugarh University 2022

➡ Gauhati University 2022

➡ Assam University 2019   2021

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Noise pollution.

Noise is one of the most pervasive pollutant. A musical clock may be nice to listen during the day, but may be an irritant during sleep at night. Noise by definition is “sound without value” or “any noise that is unwanted by the recipient”.

Noise in industries such as stone cutting and crushing, steel forgings, loudspeakers, shouting by hawkers selling their wares, movement of heavy transport vehicles, railways and airports leads to irritation and an increased blood pressure, loss of temper, decrease in work efficiency, loss of hearing which may be first temporary but can become permanent in the noise stress continues. It is therefore of utmost importance that excessive noise is controlled.

Noise level is measured in terms of decibels (dB). W.H.O. (World Health Organization) has prescribed optimum noise level as 45 dB by day and 35 dB by night. Anything above 80 dB is hazardous.

Causes and Sources of Noise Pollution

There are several sources of noise that contribute to both indoor and outdoor noise pollution which are listed below:

a) Cutting and Crushing in Industries/ Factories.

b) M ovement of heavy transport vehicles, railways and airports etc.

c) Sound generated during Construction activities.

d) Household chores such as washing and cleaning.

e) Playing of loud speakers during festivals/ social events and also hearing loud music in home.

f) Fire crackers burning during festivals and celebrations.

g) Microphones, Television and radio run in loud voice.

h) Loudspeakers in religious places.

h) Some noises are also caused by nature which are called a tmospheric noise which arises due to spurious radio frequency waves due to lightning and other natural disturbances occurring in the atmosphere. Natural phenomena like lightning, thunder, volcanic eruption, earthquake, sound of the ocean waves, etc.

Effects of Noise Pollution

a) Hearing Problems: Exposure to noise can damage one of the most vital organs of the body, the ear.

b) Poor Cognitive Function: With regular exposure to loud noise, the ability to read, learn and understand decreases significantly over time.

c) Serious diseases: High noise pollution can cause high blood pressure and loss of temperament.

d) Sleep disorders – exposure to noise reduces duration of sleep, diminish quality of sleep, Psychic disorders.

e) Wild life issues – noise bring about changes in the behavioural aptitude of birds and animals. They become inefficient in hunting and hence disturb the balance of ecosystem.

Thermal Pollution

The excessive heat dissipated into air or water from the industries increases the temperatures of the entire ecosystem and hence causes thermal pollution. Industrial waste and heat not only causes widespread climatological changes but also it can cause the damage of aquatic and terrestrial life. The effect of thermal pollution is more prominently marked in aquatic system.

The industries like iron and steel plants, petroleum refineries, nuclear reactor, electronic power plants etc. use large amount of water for cooling purposes. The water carries a lot of heat which when released into nearby bodies leads to thermal power pollution. Such an increase in temperature of the aquatic bodies by 8 to 10 degree celcius becomes injuries to the aquatic life.

When an increase in temperature of the aquatic body affects and disrupts the normal activities of the aquatic living organisms, the process is known as thermal pollution.

Sources of Thermal Pollution

a) Nuclear reactor

b) Industrial Wastes

c) Hydro-electric Power Plant

d) Thermal Power

e) Domestic Sewage

Effects of thermal pollution

Thermal pollution affects the living organism in the following ways:

a) It reduces the dissolved oxygen content of water.

b) It changes the characteristics properties of water.

c) It influences reproductive cycle, digestion rate, respiration rate and many enzymatic activities of living organism.

d) It favours the growth of certain bacteria and pathogens.

e) The egg of fish may hatch early or fail to hatch at all.

f) Thermal pollution results in low dissolved oxygen levels thereby perishing aquatic organisms.

Measures to Control Thermal Pollution

1. Colling of Pond’s water is the simplest and cheapest method to control thermal pollution.

2. Plantation of trees upon the banks of rivers, seas and other water bodies. Trees not only help in controlling thermal pollution but also aid in a better environment.

3. Creating artificial lakes for cooling of ponds.

4. Recycling of used water of factories.

5. Co-generation of heat from hot water and used in different tasks of industries.

Solid Waste Management

Industrialization across the world has brought a lot of good as well as bad things as well. One of the negative effects of industrialization is the creation of solid waste and consequent environmental degradation.

According to Britannica, “Solid-waste management is the collecting, treating and disposing of solid material that is discarded because it has served its purpose or is no longer useful. Improper disposal of municipal solid waste can create unsanitary conditions, and these conditions in turn can lead to pollution of the environment and to the outbreaks of vector-borne disease”

Human and animal activities generate different kinds of wastes. These wastes are generally in solid form, and may cause pollution of land, water and air unless treated and disposed off. The process of collection, transportation, treatment and disposal can be grouped under solid waste management. The increase in the quantity of solid waste is due to overpopulation, affluence and technological advancement.

Bad effects of solid wastes

a) Open dumps are malodorous places in which disease carrying vermins such as rats and files proliferate.

b) Methane gas is released into the surrounding air due to decomposition of solid wastes by the micro-organisms.

c) Hazardous materials dissolved in this liquid contaminate underground water and solid strata.

d) The leachate consisting of a variety of chemical constituents’ seeps and pollute the ground water.

e) Absence of landfill lingers aggravate the problem furthermore.

Types of Solid Waste

Solid wastes (waste which are neither liquid nor gaseous) can be classified into:

a) Urban or municipal wastes

b) Industrial wastes

Sources of Urban Waste

– Domestic wastes: It includes a variety of materials thrown out from homes.

– Food waste, Cloth, Waste paper, Glass bottles, Polythene bags, Waste metals, plastic containers, scrap, paints etc.

– Commercial wastes: It includes wastes coming out from shops, markets, hotels, offices, institutions, etc.

– Waste paper, packaging material, cans, bottle, polythene bags, etc.

– Construction wastes: It includes wastes of construction materials. • Wood, Concrete, Debris, etc.

– Horticulture waste and waste from slaughter houses include vegetable parts, residues and remains of slaughtered animals, respectively.

– Biomedical wastes: It includes mostly waste organic materials

– Anatomical wastes, Infectious wastes, glass bottles, plastic, metal syringe, etc.

– Mining waste: A large amount of solid waste is released from the mining activities. The increase in solid waste is due to overpopulation, affluence and technological advancement.

Sources of Industrial Waste

The main source of industrial wastes are chemical industries, metal and mineral processing industries.

– Nuclear plants: Generate radioactive wastes

– Thermal power plants: Produce solid waste in the form of fly ash 3

– Chemical Industries: Produce large quantities of hazardous and toxic materials.

– Other industries: Other industries produce packing materials, rubbish, organic wastes, acid, alkali, scrap metals, rubber, plastic, paper, glass, wood, oils, paints, dyes, etc.

Measures to Control Solid Waste

i) Sanitary Landfill: This is the most popular solid waste disposal method used today. Disposing of waste in a landfill involves burying the waste, in abandoned or unused places. In this method garbage is spread out in thin layers, compacted and covered with clay, sand or plastic liner. The liners protect the ground water from being contaminated. When the landfill is full, it is covered with layers of sand, clay, top soil and gravel to prevent seepage of water.

ii) Incineration : It is the hygienic way of disposing solid waste. It is a thermal process (controlled combustion) in which the waste material is converted to heat, gas, steam and ash, which can be used for electrical generation and domestic heating. It is suitable for hazardous, organic and medical wastes. Combustible substance should be separated and removed before incineration process. Wet municipal waste should be preheated before incineration process. It reduces the volume of waste up to 20 or 30% of the original volume.

iii) Composting: It is a popular method by which bulk organic matter is converted into fertilizer by biological action. Microorganisms like fungi, bacteria convert degradable organic waste into broken, odourless mass called humus, which is a good fertilizer. Separated compostable waste is dumped in underground trenches in layers of 1.5m and finally covered with soil of 20 cm and left for decomposition.

Sometimes, actinomycetes are introduced for active decomposition. Biological action will start within two to three days. Good quality environmental friendly manure is formed from the compost and can be used for agricultural purpose.

iv) Vermi Composting: It has become very popular in the last few years. In vermi composting, earthworms are added to the compost. These help to break the waste and the added excreta of the worms makes the compost rich in nutrients. It is very useful biofertilizer and soil conditioner.

Related posts:

• Introduction to Environmental Studies [Environmental Studies Notes BCOM/BA/BSC 2nd SEM CBCS Pattern]
• Natural Resources Types, Renewable and Non-renewable Resources

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Solar Storm Intensifies, Filling Skies With Northern Lights

Officials warned of potential blackouts or interference with navigation and communication systems this weekend, as well as auroras as far south as Southern California or Texas.

By Katrina Miller and Judson Jones

Katrina Miller reports on space and astronomy and Judson Jones is a meteorologist.

A dramatic blast from the sun set off the highest-level geomagnetic storm in Earth’s atmosphere on Friday that is expected to make the northern lights visible as far south as Florida and Southern California and could interfere with power grids, communications and navigations system.

It is the strongest such storm to reach Earth since Halloween of 2003. That one was strong enough to create power outages in Sweden and damage transformers in South Africa.

The effects could continue through the weekend as a steady stream of emissions from the sun continues to bombard the planet’s magnetic field.

The solar activity is so powerful that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, which monitors space weather, issued an unusual storm watch for the first time in 19 years, which was then upgraded to a warning. The agency began observing outbursts on the sun’s surface on Wednesday, with at least five heading in the direction of Earth.

“What we’re expecting over the next couple of days should be more significant than what we’ve seen certainly so far,” Mike Bettwy, the operations chief at NOAA’s Space Weather Prediction Center, said at a news conference on Friday morning.

For people in many places, the most visible part of the storm will be the northern lights, known also as auroras. But authorities and companies will also be on the lookout for the event’s effects on infrastructure, like global positioning systems, radio communications and even electrical power.

While the northern lights are most often seen in higher latitudes closer to the North Pole, people in many more parts of the world are already getting a show this weekend that could last through the early part of next week.

As Friday turned to Saturday in Europe, people across the continent described skies hued in a mottling of colors.

Alfredo Carpineti , an astrophysicist, journalist and author in North London, saw them with his husband from the rooftop of their apartment building.

“It is incredible to be able to see the aurora directly from one’s own backyard,” he said. “I was hoping to maybe catch a glimpse of green on the horizon, but it was all across the sky in both green and purple.”

Here’s what you need to know about this weekend’s solar event.

How will the storm affect people on Earth?

A geomagnetic storm watch or warning indicates that space weather may affect critical infrastructure on or orbiting near Earth. It may introduce additional current into systems, which could damage pipelines, railroad tracks and power lines.

According to Joe Llama, an astronomer at Lowell Observatory, communications that rely on high frequency radio waves, such as ham radio and commercial aviation , are most likely to suffer. That means it is unlikely that your cellphone or car radio, which depend on much higher frequency radio waves, will conk out.

Still, it is possible for blackouts to occur. As with any power outage, you can prepare by keeping your devices charged and having access to backup batteries, generators and radio.

The most notable solar storm recorded in history occurred in 1859. Known as the Carrington Event, it lasted for nearly a week, creating aurora that stretched down to Hawaii and Central America and impacting hundreds of thousands of miles of telegraph lines.

But that was technology of the 19th century, used before scientists fully understood how solar activity disrupted Earth’s atmosphere and communication systems.

“That was an extreme level event,” said Shawn Dahl, a forecaster at NOAA’s Space Weather Prediction Center. “We are not anticipating that.”

Unlike tornado watches and warnings, the target audience for NOAA’s announcements is not the public.

“For most people here on planet Earth, they won’t have to do anything,” said Rob Steenburgh, a space scientist at NOAA’s Space Weather Prediction Center.

The goal of the announcements is to give agencies and companies that operate this infrastructure time to put protection measures in place to mitigate any effects.

“If everything is working like it should, the grid will be stable and they’ll be able to go about their daily lives,” Mr. Steenburgh said.

Will I be able to see the northern lights?

It is possible that the northern lights may grace the skies this week over places that don’t usually see them. The best visibility is outside the bright lights of cities.

Clouds or stormy weather could pose a problem in some places. But if the skies are clear, even well south of where the aurora is forecast to take place, snap a picture or record a video with your cellphone. The sensor on the camera is more sensitive to the wavelengths produced by the aurora and may produce an image you can’t see with the naked eye.

Another opportunity could be viewing sunspots during the daytime, if your skies are clear. As always, do not look directly at the sun without protection. But if you still have your eclipse glasses lying around from the April 8 event, you may try to use them to try to spot the cluster of sunspots causing the activity.

How strong is the current geomagnetic storm?

Giant explosions on the surface of the sun, known as coronal mass ejections, send streams of energetic particles into space. But the sun is large, and such outbursts may not cross our planet as it travels around the star. But when these particles create a disturbance in Earth’s magnetic field, it is known as a geomagnetic storm.

NOAA classifies these storms on a “G” scale of 1 to 5, with G1 being minor and G5 being extreme. The most extreme storms can cause widespread blackouts and damage to infrastructure on Earth. Satellites may also have trouble orienting themselves or sending or receiving information during these events.

The current storm is classified as G5, or “extreme.” It is caused by a cluster of sunspots — dark, cool regions on the solar surface — that is about 16 times the diameter of Earth. The cluster is flaring and ejecting material every six to 12 hours.

“We anticipate that we’re going to get one shock after another through the weekend,” said Brent Gordon, chief of the space weather services branch at NOAA’s Space Weather Prediction Center.

Why is this happening now?

The sun’s activity ebbs and flows on an 11-year cycle, and right now, it is approaching a solar maximum. Three other severe geomagnetic storms have been observed so far in the current activity cycle, which began in December 2019, but none were predicted to cause effects strong enough on Earth to warrant a watch or warning announcement.

The cluster of sunspots generating the current storm is the largest seen in this solar cycle, NOAA officials said. They added that the activity in this cycle has outperformed initial predictions .

More flares and expulsions from this cluster are expected, but because of the sun’s rotation the cluster will be oriented in a position less likely to affect Earth. In the coming weeks, the sunspots may appear again on the left side of the sun, but it is difficult for scientists to predict whether this will cause another bout of activity.

“Usually, these don’t come around packing as much of a punch as they did originally,” Mr. Dahl said. “But time will tell on that.”

Jonathan O’Callaghan contributed reporting from London.

An earlier version of this article misstated the radio frequencies used by cellphones and car radios. They are higher frequencies, not low.

How we handle corrections

Katrina Miller is a science reporting fellow for The Times. She recently earned her Ph.D. in particle physics from the University of Chicago. More about Katrina Miller

Judson Jones is a meteorologist and reporter for The Times who forecasts and covers extreme weather. More about Judson Jones

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