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How to build strong study habits

Here's your chance to become a master of studying! Benefit from our complete guide to building strong study habits that will last a lifetime.

If your habits don't line up with your dream, then you need to either change your habits or change your dream ― John C. Maxwell

Like college students amid their first bad hangover, we swear we’ll never, ever wait to cram at the last moment again. It's the perennial complaint of students everywhere: “...if only I’d started studying sooner, then I wouldn’t be in this mess!”

Well, I have good news for you. Studying effectively doesn't have to be hard!

The secret is building strong study habits .

Habits are grooves carved into your brain’s neural network that eventually become hard-wired, like tracks for a train to run on. Once studying becomes a habit, instead of your brain trudging along muddy hillocky paths, pushing aside thorny bushes, and stepping in cowpats, you glide along smooth rails, getting your study done easily so you can go out and play.

Studies have shown that once an action becomes habitual it takes far less effort for your brain to accomplish it. (Which would FINALLY help you keep your New Year's resolutions! )

Sounds great, right?

Well, it is great. Once you’ve made studying daily a rock-solid habit, you’ll reap the rewards. Daily practice plays to your memory’s strengths, so you’ll be able to get knowledge solidly into your brain with less effort.

However, there are a series of enemies blocking your path: (1) social expectations, aka FOMO ; (2) the desire to save brainpower ; (3) procrastination ; and (4) instant gratification .

If you want to become a study master and cruise smoothly through each study session, you will need to disarm these enemies and use their weapons against them.

We've given you 11 tips on how to do that:

• Anchor new habits to old ones
• Start one micro-habit at a time
• Keep the chain going
• Bribe yourself to study
• Discover your best time to study
• Use peer pressure to study better
• Combat the forces of FOMO
• Be unapologetic about studying
• Give yourself consequences
• Sort out your study environment
• The hidden benefits of daily study habits

Are you ready to enter the dojo and build strong daily study habits? Then welcome, young padawan. It’s time to learn the ways of the study master.

Psst. Improve your mental and physical well-being with these small life-changing habits that take ZERO time ! Also, did you know you can use the Brainscape app to achieve your personal growth goals —like improving your health, wealth, mindset, emotional intelligence, etc.?

1. The enemies of good study habits

The secret to improving study motivation and building good study habits is to realize it’s a game of two halves—you must play both offense and defense. This means you need to both defend against distractions and set your mind to do the work.

Think of your brain as a sort of council. There is more than one politician in Congress, and not all of them have your long-term interests at heart. Sometimes the long-term planner (the frontal cortex) wins the vote, and you go and do things that are hard but will give you rewards later.

Many other times, however, the more ancient, less evolved parts of your brain win the day. This is when the lizard brain or limbic system takes over. These areas respond well to crises—but when there’s no emergency, they seek pleasure.

This is the part that’s in control when, instead of studying, you do whatever is easy and rewards you straight away. Think watching Netflix, playing beer pong, napping, surfing the net, shopping, or eating ice cream.

The issue is that for most people, their frontal cortex has a minority government; It doesn’t have all that much pull. And both inside and outside the brain, the forces arrayed against it are multitudinous.

So now, you’re about to learn which obstacles are in the way of building your study habits and how to defeat them . Let’s get started ...

1.1. Social expectations, aka FOMO

This one is huge, especially if you’re engaged in campus life. The pull to skip studying and do fun things with your friends can be really strong.

Continually resisting temptation puts a heavy load on your willpower.

Many of the best-laid study plans are derailed by some random invitation that spirals into a whole day of distraction. Socializing is important. But there’s a way to prioritize your study so it gets done, and you can still have guilt-free outings with your friends.

1.2. The desire to save brainpower

The brain is an energy-hungry organ . It’s only 2% of your body weight, but even when you’re resting, it demands 20% of your energy.

Thinking, studying, learning—all of these take up brain space. Normally, we prefer to conserve this energy, so it’s a natural thing for us to avoid tasks that are going to exhaust us mentally.

This is why you need systems to get you through the hardest part: actually sitting down to study. Because this avoidance of spending brain energy leads to procrastination!

1.3. Procrastination

A test that’s weeks or months away doesn’t feel urgent. As the test looms closer, however, it’s amazing how many people end up with spotlessly clean kitchens, perfectly ordered sock drawers, and crisply cut lawns.

This is a wonderful tactic to feel productive even when you have far more important things to do.

What’s at work here is a phenomenon called delay discounting . Researchers have found that humans prefer a small reward delivered in the near future over a larger reward they have to wait for. It’s a variation on avoiding delayed gratification.

The ancient parts of your brain HATE spending valuable brain energy on things that are not either a clear and present danger or a pleasurable escape. Back in the days when we were part of the food chain, humans needed their brains to stay focused on urgent problems, like staying alive.

Precious brain juice wasn’t spent on contemplating why apples fell off trees or other non-urgent problems. This urge to prioritize only urgent tasks is still very much alive in us all.

Our brains are very skilled at bringing up seemingly urgent tasks to do instead of hard mental work. Hence the emergence of the spotless fridge and ironed boxer shorts during study week.

1.4. Instant gratification

As mentioned before the ancient, emotion-driven limbic system in our brains craves instant rewards.

In the 1960s, a Stanford professor named Walter Mischel conducted a series of experiments designed to test four-year-old children to their furthest limits.

Mischel put a marshmallow on a table in front of a kid and said they could eat the marshmallow now. Or they could eat two marshmallows if they didn’t eat the marshmallow while he left the room.

Mischel then left the room, leaving a marshmallow sitting in front of a deeply conflicted four-year-old.

This now-famous test became known as the Marshmallow Experiment . While tormenting children for science was entertaining (some children had to scoot their chairs over to the corner, face the wall, and sit on their hands to avoid eating the marshmallow) what was most interesting was the aftermath.

For the next forty years, Mischel followed his participants’ lives. He and other researchers found that the kids who passed the Marshmallow Experiment and could delay gratification had higher SAT scores , better health , and happier relationships .

It turns out that the ability to delay gratification is a key part of living a good life . Those who will do something hard to experience rewards not now, but in the future, succeed in their endeavors.

The issue here is that you’re not a four-year-old child who has to wait five minutes for two marshmallows. (Although to be fair, when you’re four years old, five minutes is a lifetime.)

Navigating life when you’re a student or working means constant pressure from conflicting obligations. You’ll have to make myriad decisions throughout each day. You’ll be resisting temptations, juggling priorities, and managing your energy.

Each time you put off something easy to do something hard, you’re using your willpower. It turns out that willpower is a limited resource and gets exhausted the more you use it.

That’s why if you try to study daily on an ad hoc basis, it’s much more likely to not get done. Then you end up like everyone else: only studying when a test is looming closer, under the tyranny of an impending deadline.

Cramming is an ineffective way to study, which is why (as you’ll find out soon) distraction is an enemy you will need to vanquish to build strong study habits.

2. Strong study habit tips to defeat your enemies

As you may have figured out by now, the phrase "strong study habits" is synonymous with "developing the willpower to do a little bit of work every day because the alternative – cramming – is less effective and even more time-consuming in the long run."

The importance of this realization cannot be underestimated. You can even think of habit formation in terms of this popular mathematical equation:

In other words, doing just a little bit of extra effort every day (no exceptions!) for an entire year will exponentially increase your performance, while slacking off every day will erode your performance or knowledge toward nearly zero, such that you have to start again from scratch (e.g. "cramming") at the last minute.

The good news is that you can fundamentally hack your brain to develop these consistent daily study habits to the point that they become almost effortless.

Below is our list of various forms of mental jiu-jitsu that can help you turn study foes’ weapons against them.

[Try this hack: ' How the benefits of cold showers can change your life ']

Tip 1. Anchor new habits to old ones

As we mentioned above, our brains don’t like to expend lots of energy on hard mental work. But when something becomes a habit, it doesn’t take energy or willpower; you do the thing on autopilot.

The easiest way to make a new habit is to tie it into an existing habit that is already established (otherwise known as an anchor habit.)

For example, if you study better in the morning, then bring out your notes and do your study session while you have your first coffee of the day. The first coffee is your anchor habit, and study is the new habit you’re attaching to it. Quite quickly, you’ll see that studying also becomes automatic.

If evenings are your chosen study time, then build your habit on something you do every evening. For example, you could spend an hour studying every night after dinner, or you could work through your notes before you go to bed each night. Or you could use the Feynman Technique while you’re out walking, exercising, or commuting.

When you tie your new habit with an existing habit, you’re taking advantage of neural pathways that have been already laid down. With consistent practice, your new study habit should start to feel effortless in a couple of weeks.

Tip 2. Start one micro-habit at a time

One of the best ways to guarantee that your new habit won't stick is to take on too big of a challenge at once. So let's nip that one in the bud before we continue.

If your goal is to study every day instead of waiting until the last minute, don't start by promising yourself that you'll study for two hours a day or re-read 5 textbook chapters at a time. That can feel so daunting that you'll end up quitting the first time a major wave of inertia hits you.

Instead, maybe just commit to studying one 10-flashcard round in Brainscape every day, or to making digital flashcards for just one small textbook lesson every day. As long as you have broken up your studying into bite-sized milestones, it will be much easier to develop these habits and stay motivated to study .

Admittedly, tiny daily study sessions might not initially be enough to prevent your need to cram more at the last minute. But at least you're establishing real habits, and you can always add to your goals once your small starter goals have begun to stick.

Tip 3. Keep the chain going

Another hack for building strong study habits comes from comedian Jerry Seinfeld. For years, Seinfeld would write a joke every day, no matter what was going on in his life. After many days, this chain of daily practice became its own incentive.

The threat of breaking the chain contributed to his motivation: Seinfeld didn’t want to break the chain, so he continued writing a joke every day. The habit stuck.

You can use apps like Don’t Break the Chain or Done to create a chain for your daily study habit OR you can very simply set study reminders in Brainscape!

Go into the menu in the mobile app, select 'Notifications', and then toggle on 'Streak Reminders'. Those will show up as push notifications on your phone’s home screen, reminding you to stop what you’re doing and put in a quick study round with Brainscape. You can also customize the time of day you’d prefer to receive your reminders!

Additionally, Brainscape's new study metrics page will help you visualize your progress toward your goals, which can serve as a huge motivation.

Tip 4. Bribe yourself to study

You now know there are deep and powerful parts of your brain that crave instant gratification. They are not moved by distant lofty goals. They want something yummy now. So, use this to your advantage.

The idea is to train your brain like it’s one of Pavlov’s dogs. In his foundational experiment, Pavlov was able to connect two stimuli in a dog’s brain : the ringing of a bell, and a bowl of delicious dog food. By the end of Pavlov’s experiment, the connection between the sound of the bell and a meal was so strong, that his dogs would start to salivate when they heard the bell.

You need to make a connection between sitting down to study, and something your brain likes.

It’s time to train your brain with gratification.

Every time you sit down to study, give yourself a treat. Whatever floats your particular boat: whether it’s chocolate, gummy bears, or your favorite TV show. Naked and Afraid anyone? Once you've studied at least 10-15 minutes (of Brainscape flashcards :), give yourself the treat.

Pretty soon, your brain will start to look forward to your study sessions, because you’ll have connected the positive experience (the treat) with studying.

Congratulations! You have created a neural connection in your brain to tie studying together with gummy bears. Science has been achieved.

Tip 5. Discover your best time to study

To build strong habits, it’s very important to study at the same time each day whenever possible. We’re cyclical creatures, and keeping your study schedule regular will cement the habit much more strongly than shifting it around each day.

So when should you study? Are you a morning lark or a night owl ?

Do you feel sharp at 11 am or 7 pm? Do you fade after lunch? Perk up after dinner? Maybe you’re one of those rare birds who wake up at 6 am bright-eyed, bushy-tailed, ready to go...

Everyone has a circadian cycle of sleep and wakefulness. Paying attention to this cycle means you can go to study at times when your energy is optimal. To discover your cycle, spend a week observing yourself ( or read this article ). Look for the times of day or night when you are at your best and able to tackle difficult mental tasks.

Take note of how the time you go to bed affects how you feel in the morning. This is important. Your circadian rhythm means you can get the same eight hours of sleep, but how rested you feel depends a lot on when during the night you take your rest.

Some people can go to bed at midnight and feel great the next day. Others need to go to bed before 10 pm to get a really good night’s sleep. Once you’ve worked out when you function best, note down those times. Use this knowledge to decide when is the best time for you to study .

Tip 6. Use peer pressure to study better

Peer pressure is a powerful force. It makes people do strange things, like wear clothes with brand logos on them or buy $30 drinks at bars.

One of Professor Robert Cialdini’s six powerful elements of human persuasion is a variant of this force. It’s called consistency, and you can use it to persuade yourself into good habits.

Here’s how consistency works. As human beings, we like to appear to be consistent with our fellow humans. So if we tell everyone “I’m a party animal, and the only time I ever study is on the night before a test,” a precedent has been set.

To appear consistent with your peers, you can’t be found going over your lecture notes on a mid-term Wednesday evening.

However, if you tell all your friends about the wonders of studying every day, then you have a different kind of reputation to uphold.

Most people will expend far more effort to avoid embarrassment than they will to achieve a distant goal. So use this knowledge to create social pressure in support of the habits that will make you succeed in life.

Embrace your inner nerd , and ‘own’ the fact that you geek out at a set time each day. Anyone who makes fun of you will find the tables turned during finals week when they’re frantically trying to cram, and you’re relaxed and confident with plenty of time for leisure.

After a few months of daily studying, you’ll find your habits become a part of your identity. Once you see yourself as someone who studies every day, you’ve truly won the battle and created strong study habits.

Tip 7. Combat the forces of FOMO

Always turn your phone and social media notifications OFF when you start your study time. Apps like Freedom and StayFocusd can do this for you on a laptop. Ignorance is the best cure for FOMO—if you don’t know about the other things you could be doing, you can’t be distracted by them.

Tip 8. Be unapologetic about studying

Another way to avoid social pressure is to be unapologetic about how you spend your time. Don’t give an explanation, and people won’t press you.

For example, if someone asks you to hang out during your study time, just say "Nope, I have to study." They don't have to know that your test isn't for another 6 weeks.

Tip 9. Give yourself consequences

Lastly, if you have someone who wants to join your daily study regime, use the power of aversion to cement your study habits.

This is because while rewards are good, bad consequences are an even more powerful way to create habits. Studies show people will go further to avoid pain than gain pleasure .

With your study partner, create awful consequences if you don’t follow through on your daily study. Keep each other accountable, and be ready to enforce the payout if they don’t keep up their side of the bargain. (And be ready to suffer the consequences if you don’t.)

Using a service like Stickk , people have been forced to donate money to their least favorite charity when they don’t complete their goals. Other sites will publish photos of the person naked if they don’t stick to their weight loss goals (whatever gets the job done, right?). You’d better believe that with stakes like that in the game, participants stick to their goals, and so will you.

Tip 10. Sort out your study environment

The last key to creating a rock-solid study habit is controlling your environment. Set reminders for you to start your daily study session. Create a special area dedicated to study, with all the things you’ll need to do the work close at hand.

Put up a calendar so you can see how each day brings you closer to your exam. Use this same calendar to keep track of your chain of daily study sessions.

Make it "convenient" to study often. Keep your books and notes in a place where you can easily and frequently access them. Have your flashcard app on your phone's home screen and in your web browser's "Favorites" bar, so you don’t have to think about what to do first in your study session.

Building a strong study habit is very similar to getting fit. As your brain gets into the habit of working each day at a set time, it gets fitter, and study sessions become more enjoyable.

Tip 11. The hidden benefits of daily study habits

When you defy the enemies of study and build your strong study habit, you’re also doing something else. Something very important. You’re building character.

'Character' has been defined as the ability to complete a task long after the mood in which the decision to do it has left you.

When you keep your promises to yourself, you’re sending yourself an important message about who you are, and what you’re capable of. In doing this, you’re laying the foundation for future success and happiness.

3. Build your study system

We’ve now gone through the two parts of building a strong study habit: defense and offense. It’s time to put it all together.

Here are the habits that go into building a study system that will work for you.

• Choose an existing activity you habitually do at these times and tie it to your new study habit.
• Keep the chain going—maintain a record of your daily sessions, and create an unbroken chain of them.
• Decide on your study treat and bribe yourself with it at the start and end of your session.
• Note the times of day when your brain is sharpest. Choose these as your designated study times.
• Start celebrating your inner nerd. Spread the gospel of daily study to your friends to create a consistent character you have to live up to.
• Push back against FOMO by turning off your phone and staying ignorant of what your friends are doing.
• Be unapologetic when ducking out of social events in order to keep your study habit.
• Choose your accountability partner, and decide on some (very unpleasant) consequences if you don’t follow through on your study plan.
• Set up a special study space with everything you need.
• Prep your study materials and Brainscape flashcards so the first few minutes of study can be done on autopilot
• Study daily to build character

Building strong study habits is ultimately about respecting your long term goals. And if you need help breaking out of a fixed mindset and learning how to stick to the long road, roll with the punches, be a little more patient, and embrace the learning curve, definitely read: ' How to unlock a growth mindset '.

Remind yourself that studying is actually a way of honoring yourself and keeping your promises. Every time you keep your commitments, you’re building your willpower muscle, and this will help you throughout your entire life.

Ayduk, O., Mendoza-Denton, R., Mischel, W., Downey, G., Peake, P. K., & Rodriguez, M. (2000). Regulating the interpersonal self: Strategic self-regulation for coping with rejection sensitivity . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79 (5), 776–792. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.79.5.776

Cialdini, R. (2016). Pre-suasion: A revolutionary way to influence and persuade. Simon & Schuster.

Doyle, J. R. (2013). Survey of time preference, delay discounting models . Judgment and Decision Making , 8 (2), 116-135.

Gardner, B., & Rebar, A. L. (2019). Habit formation and behavior change . In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology .

Gailliot, M. T., Baumeister, R. F., DeWall, C. N., Maner, J. K., Plant, E. A., Tice, D. M., Brewer, L. E., & Schmeichel, B. J. (2007). Self-control relies on glucose as a limited energy source: Willpower is more than a metaphor . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92 (2), 325–336. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.2.325

Jarius, S., & Wildemann, B. (2015). And Pavlov still rings a bell: Summarising the evidence for the use of a bell in Pavlov’s iconic experiments on classical conditioning. Journal of neurology , 262 (9), 2177-2178. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-015-7858-5

Mischel, W., Ayduk, O., Berman, M. G., Casey, B. J., Gotlib, I. H., Jonides, J., ... & Shoda, Y. (2011). ‘Willpower’ over the life span: Decomposing self-regulation. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience , 6 (2), 252-256.

Seeyave, D. M., Coleman, S., Appugliese, D., Corwyn, R. F., Bradley, R. H., Davidson, N. S., ... & Lumeng, J. C. (2009). Ability to delay gratification at age 4 years and risk of overweight at age 11 years. Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine , 163 (4), 303-308.

Flashcards for serious learners .

College Info Geek

How to Build Good Study Habits: 5 Areas to Focus On

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Growing up, I learned the importance of good study habits early.

I was responsible for writing down my homework assignments each day, checking I had all the right books the night before school, and making flashcards to study spelling or vocab words. If I didn’t stay diligent in these study habits, then I was bound to hear about it from my mom.

Establishing good study habits at an early age paid off. In high school and college, I was able to focus on learning the material instead of learning how to study. I never got bad grades because I forgot to turn in homework, and if I ever did poorly on a test I had no one to blame but myself.

However, I recognize that not everyone has the benefit of learning good study habits early in life. For many people, college is the first time you even have to think about how to study and manage a schedule all on your own.

To bridge the gap, I’ve put together the following guide to good study habits. First, we’ll look at what good study habits are and why they matter. Then, we’ll give some practical examples of good study habits in action (and how they can solve some common academic issues).

What Is a Good Study Habit?

Before we go any further, we need to define what a good study habit is. To start, we should define “habit”.

A habit is an action (or series of actions) that you perform automatically in response to a particular cue. For instance, the sound of your alarm going off might cue the habit of getting out of bed and walking into the kitchen to make coffee (or, for some of us, hitting the snooze button).

But what makes a habit “good”? Generally, we define a good habit as one that helps you achieve your goals and live in line with your values . A bad habit, meanwhile, is detrimental to your goals and values in the long-term (even if it relieves pain or provides pleasure in the short-term).

A good study habit, then, is a habit that helps you achieve your academic objectives while still supporting your broader goals and values.

3 Reasons Good Study Habits Matter

Good study habits matter for three main reasons: focus, grades, and mental health.

Starting with focus, having the right study habits in place frees up your mind to concentrate on the material you’re learning.

Instead of having to think about how to create flashcards, for example, you can focus on using flashcards to learn a new language .

If your study techniques aren’t automatic, meanwhile, they can distract you from the larger work you’re trying to do.

While good study habits won’t automatically raise your GPA , they’ll certainly improve your chances.

As an example, you’re likely to perform better on an exam if you’re in the habit of studying for it over several days (or weeks) instead of the night before.

Mental Health

Most important of all, however, is the benefit good study habits have for your mental health.

No matter how much “raw intelligence” you might have, poor study habits will make college stressful and anxious.

If you aren’t in the habit of starting research papers well in advance, for instance, then you’ll be in for some sleepless, caffeine-fueled nights. But if you habitually start your research papers early, then you can avoid the unnecessary stress that comes from procrastination.

5 Types of Good Study Habits (and How to Build Them)

Originally, this section was going to contain a long list of good study habits. But since we already have an extensive list of study tips , many of which are specific study habits, I decided to do something different.

Instead of listing yet more study tips, I’m going to examine some common college academic struggles that good study habits can help eliminate or avoid. This way, you can get some practical tips for building good study habits and putting them into action.

This section focuses on how to build good study habits, specifically. For a more general overview of how to build good habits, read this .

Study Habits for Doing Better on Exams

Are your exam grades lower than you’d like? If so, your study habits could be the culprit.

When it comes to studying for exams effectively, here are some habits to keep in mind:

Go to Review Sessions

Usually, your professor and/or TA will hold a review session before each exam. This review will only be helpful, however, if you attend it. Therefore, make a habit of going to any scheduled exam review sessions, especially in classes you find difficult.

How to build the habit: This is one of the easier habits on this list to build. All you have to do is put the review session on your calendar and then be sure you go to it. To make this easier, pay attention in class for any announcements of review sessions.

Make and Study Flashcards

If you’re studying for an exam that requires you to memorize lots of information, then flashcards are your friend. In particular, building a habit of daily flashcard review leading up to an exam can help your performance greatly.

How to build the habit: First, be sure you understand the best ways to make and study flashcards .

From there, we recommend using a flashcard app that reminds you to study the cards each day (and focuses your efforts on the cards you struggle with). This is a case where notifications on your phone can be a study aid instead of a distraction.

Study Habits for Writing Better Papers

No matter your major, you’ll have to write a paper at some point in college. And having the right study habits will make the process much easier and less stressful. Here are some study habits that will help you write better papers:

Don’t Procrastinate on Writing

I won’t deny it: I pulled my share of all-nighters in college. And usually, I was staying up late to finish a paper I’d procrastinated on.

While you can certainly write a paper in one night, it’s unlikely to be your best work. Instead, make it a habit to work on your paper a little bit each day in the week before the due date.

How to build the habit: If you’re struggling with procrastination, then read into the science behind why we do it .

From there, consider the stress and pain that will come from writing a paper in one night. Use that as motivation to work on your paper a little bit at a time.

Once you’ve done this for one paper and seen how much better it makes your life, you’ll be more inclined to do it with future papers.

Visit the Writing Center

While procrastination is a common issue with writing papers, you may also struggle with the writing itself. Depending on where you went to high school, in fact, you might never have learned how to write the kind of papers college requires.

If this is the case, get in the habit of visiting your college’s writing center when you’re working on a paper. The staff there would be more than happy to help you improve your writing.

How to build the habit: Going to the writing center is a fairly easy habit to build if you schedule your writing center appointments in advance.

This should be possible at most colleges, and it’s often required during high-demand times such as finals season. Making an appointment in advance adds some external accountability, so you’re more likely to show up.

For more paper writing tips, read this .

Study Habits for Completing Homework Faster

Homework is important for practicing and solidifying the concepts your professor discusses in lectures, but that doesn’t mean you should spend all your time outside of class doing it.

Here are some study habits to help you complete your homework faster, without sacrificing quality:

Schedule Your Homework Time

If you can fit all of your homework into a defined block each day, it will be much easier to get started on it. Plus, knowing that you only have to spend a defined amount of time working will reduce the dread that generally accompanies homework.

How to build the habit: First, find a time each day that’s free of obligations. Evenings will work well for some, while mornings are better for others; it depends on your schedule.

Then, put that block of time on your calendar with the title “Homework Time.” If you like, you can also break that block down into smaller chunks for each of the courses you’re taking.

Next, decide on a study space where you’ll do your homework: dorm room, library, student center, etc. Note that location on your calendar as well.

Finally, treat this block of study time like any other class, meeting, or appointment. If someone tries to schedule something during that time, tell them you already have an obligation.

Focus Completely On Your Work

You’ll get your homework done much faster if you only focus on the assignment at hand. But if you’re checking social media and your phone as your work, the process will take longer overall.

To avoid this issue, make a habit of distraction-free homework. When you’re working on homework, let nothing else fragment your attention.

How to build the habit: First, turn off your phone and put it away. If you can’t do that, then at least take some steps to make it less distracting .

Next, try to work without an internet connection whenever possible. If that isn’t practical, then use an app like Freedom to block distracting sites and apps.

If that still isn’t enough, then you can also try the Pomodoro technique .

Study Habits for Being Less Stressed

As I mentioned earlier, one of the main advantages of good study habits is reduced levels of stress.

Some study habits, in particular, are great at making the studying process less stressful. Here are a couple to try:

Use the Fudge Ratio

Due to something called the planning fallacy , humans are terrible at estimating how long things will take. The fudge ratio is a solution to this problem. It helps you create more accurate time estimates for tasks, using a simple formula that we’ll explain below.

Applying the fudge ratio to your studies will help you be less stressed since you’ll be in the habit of planning more time than you need to do assignments. If you get done early, then you’ll get a great sense of accomplishment. But if something takes the full time you “fudged,” then you won’t be caught off guard.

How to build the habit: To work the fudge ratio into your planning, you’ll need to keep track of how long you think tasks take vs. how long they truly take. Record these numbers somewhere you can review them regularly. For an accurate measure of how long tasks actually take, you can use time-tracking software .

Once you’ve done this for a bit, you can then compare your estimated times to your actual completion times. This will allow you to calculate a literal ratio that you can use to make future time estimates.

To calculate the fudge ratio for a task, use this formula:

Estimated completion time / Actual completion time = Fudge ratio

For instance, if you think it will take you 30 minutes to finish your Intro to Sociology reading but it actually takes you 45, then your fudge ratio for these reading assignments is 45/30 = 1.5. Now, you know that whenever you’re estimating how long reading will take for this class, you should multiply your estimate by 1.5.

Doing this for each class and assignment can be time-consuming. But with time, using the fudge ratio will help you get into the habit of making better time estimates overall. Eventually, you won’t need to do the tracking and math described here.

Not all classes are created equal. Sure, each instructor thinks their class is the most important on your schedule, but we all know that isn’t true. Some classes require more time and effort than others, and how you study should reflect that.

Specifically, you’ll be much less stressed if you prioritize studying the subjects that take the most work.

How to build the habit: During the first couple weeks of the semester, pay attention to how much work each class on your schedule will require. From there, you can decide where to prioritize your attention.

Then, spend most of your study time on the most difficult classes. Of course, you’ll still need to spend some time on your easier classes, but not nearly as much. Doing this will give you more free time and reduce your general stress levels.

Study Habits for the Forgetful

For our final area of habits, we turn to the pernicious problem of forgetting. Whether you’re having trouble remembering homework assignments or even showing up for class, these habits will help.

Keep a List of Your Assignments

If you’re having trouble remembering your assignments, then build the habit of keeping them on a list. This is a classic piece of advice. But if you put it into practice, it can change your life.

How to build the habit: First, decide where you’ll write down your assignments. We’re a big fan of to-do list apps for this purpose. But you could also go analog and use a paper planner. Just make sure it’s something you can easily carry with you to class.

Then, write down assignments as the professor gives them. In many cases, of course, the professor will expect you to refer to the syllabus for homework assignments. So be sure to review your syllabus each week (and bring a copy to class so you can note any changes).

Finally, review your list of assignments at the start of each homework session. As you complete an assignment, cross or check it off the list. With this habit in place, you’ll be much less likely to forget assignments.

Put Your Classes on Your Calendar

Unlike in high school, where your schedule is regimented and closely supervised, college offers more independence. While this can be exciting, it also means greater responsibility. And one of the first responsibilities you’ll face as a college student is showing up for class at the right time.

While simple in theory, it can be challenging to remember the time and location of all of your classes. Especially during the first couple weeks of class. To ensure you don’t forget when and where your classes are, put them on your calendar.

How to build the habit: Leading up to the first week of school, go online and consult the syllabus for each of your classes.

Note the class times and locations, and put that information on your calendar in recurring events. Make sure your calendar is set up to send you event notifications on your phone, and you should be able to remember each class no problem.

With time, of course, you’re likely to memorize you schedule and won’t need to consult the calendar. But having your classes on your calendar will still be helpful for planning, ensuring you don’t schedule a meeting or other event during a class.

If you’ve never set up a digital calendar, check out this guide to using your calendar efficiently in college .

Good Study Habits Aren’t Built in a Day

I hope this article has shown you the importance of good study habits, as well as how to start making them a part of your academic life.

As with any new habit, forming good study habits takes time and focus. For greater odds of success, work on forming one or two of these habits at a time. When they’re a solid part of your routine, you can add new ones.

Habit formation is such a vast topic, there was no way we could cover all the details in one article. For a deep dive into building habits that last, check out our habit-building course:

Building habits isn’t just about discipline; there are real-world steps you can take to set yourself up for success! In this course, you'll learn how to set realistic goals, handle failure without giving up, and get going on the habits you want in your life.

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FNU Advising 11 Techniques to Improve Your Study Habits

11 Techniques to Improve Your Study Habits

When it comes to developing good study habits, there is a method to all of the madness. The type of study habits that you’ve come to practice in high school may not work so well in college. However, you can certainly build on those practices to make your study habits more disciplined—because you’ll need to! In college, you’ll have more responsibility, but you’ll also have more independence. For first-time college students, this could be a challenge to balance. That’s why Florida National University (FNU) wants to help prepare all of our students for how they can improve their study habits with these 11 helpful techniques.

Study Habit #1. Find a good studying spot.

This is important. You need to be in an environment with little to no distractions—an environment that will aid in keeping you focused on your assignments. The library has always been a reliable place to get some real academic work done, but if you prefer someplace else, just make sure that you’re set up for success. Your university may have other places on campus that will provide you with a nice little studying spot. While cafeterias may be quite busy, there are some university campus cafeterias that tend to have just enough silence for students to study while they grab a bite to eat.

You might get campus fever and decide to venture outside of your university to get some work done. Many students find little coffee shops with Wi-Fi that will let them sit there all day long for a buying customer. Outdoor parks and recreational centers, even the public library might be a nice change of scenery.

Even study lighting is also important. If you want to preserve your eyesight and maximize your time and energy, then choose lighting that will not cause eye strain or fatigue so you can keep your study session effective at any time of the day.

Establish rules when you’re in your study zone. Let people living with you know that when your door is closed, it means you do not want to be disturbed. Try not to respond to phone calls or texts, this will break your concentration and you will lose focus.

Let’s not forget about your home. No matter the size of your apartment or house, we recommend dedicating a little office space just for studying—away from any distractions.

Study Habit #2. Avoid social media.

Speaking of distractions, nothing can sap away your time for a good 20-30 minutes like good old social media! Emails used to be the necessary evil in order to keep life going, but now people are communicating through social media platforms more than email or even talking on the phone! As a result, it’s pretty common to have a browser tab open just for social media. The problem with this is the alerts! As much as you may try to ignore it, you won’t be satisfied until you follow through with the alert—an alert that will most likely require a reply! In all likelihood, it will end up being a conversation that could’ve waited an hour—and now you’ve just added another 20-30 minutes to your study time! Congratulations!

Study Habit #3. Stay Away From Your Phone.

Distractions also include avoiding your phone. The best thing you can do is either put your phone on silent, turn off the alerts and flip it over so that you can’t even SEE them, or just turn the thing off! If it helps, place the phone out of sight so that you’re not even tempted to check your messages. The world can wait. Your education is a priority and anyone who’s in your circle of friends should understand this. If you are absolutely adamant about keeping your phone nearby in case of an emergency, then allow yourself some study breaks so that you can dedicate a certain amount of time just for checking your alerts and messages.

Study Habit #4. No Willpower? Enlist the Help of an App.

Apps like Focus Booster and AntiSocial have your back!

AntiSocial blocks your access to a selection of websites with a timer that you select.

Focus Booster is a mobile phone app that relies on the Pomodoro Technique, where you work intensively for 25 minutes and then you break for five minutes. The app also includes productivity reports and revenue charts.

Study Habit #5. Take a break and take care of yourself.

Talking a little more about taking breaks, this really shouldn’t be an option. College is hard work, and just like any other kind of job, you deserve a break. Don’t be so hard on yourself. Working until the wee hours of the morning to complete an assignment might be great for that class, but it’s not for you or other academic courses. You MUST take care of yourself in order to give your academic career the attention it deserves. You’re paying to get an education—to learn. Running yourself into the ground without allowing time for your body and mind to rest is unacceptable.

• Ophthalmologists will warn you that you need to remember to blink when working on a computer screen to save your sight. Give your eyes a rest by gazing into the horizon, preferably out of a window with natural light. Did you know that your eyes need exercise, too? Especially in today’s world where we are reading everything at such close distances. Keep your head in a neutral position and with just your eyeballs, look at the ceiling or a tree and try to focus. Go from corner to corner, focusing up, then do the same for the floor. Roll your eyes.
• Your hands also need a break: learn to use the mouse with your other hand, put the keyboard in the most comfortable position, which is actually on your lap. Take a moment to stretch your wrists and fingers.
• Blueberries

And don’t forget to sleep and reboot!

Study Habit #6. Organize lectures notes.

For some students, the best way to organize notes is to ask if you can record your professors’ lectures for a better understanding of the lesson. The best way to do this is to transcribe the recorded lecture notes. This way, you can rewind what you didn’t understand. It also behooves you to revisit those notes—while the material is fresh in your mind and rewrite them in a style that’s more legible and review-friendly. On the day of the exam, you’ll be glad you did.

Fact: it has been proven that information retention is higher when you go over your notes and repeat the lesson after the class is over. Rewriting your lecture notes is going to be one of the most brilliant study techniques to practice. Rewriting will help you remember the context better and reorganizing them in nice outline forces you to comprehend the lesson.

Study Habit #7. Join or create a study group.

Finding fellow students who are struggling to understand the coursework can be comforting. However, joining or creating a study group can be helpful in many ways.  Guaranteed someone in your study group can help you through a certain assignment you’re struggling with and you’ll be able to do the same. It’s all about helping each other succeed!

Study Habit #8. Aromatherapy, plants and music.

Science is always tinkering with nature, but in this case, in a simple way, only studying the effects of essential oils and plants on concentration, focus, and memory.

Some studies have shown that lavender has a good effect on memory, however, others have shown that its effect is negligible and in fact, lavender oil and teas are used to relax the body in preparation for sleep. So lavender may calm and center yourself, but for focus, sandalwood and frankincense (also known as Boswellia) have shown much more promising results in most studies.

Plants, in general, have a natural, comforting effect and in their presence, humans tend to have a higher pain tolerance and faster recoveries from hospitalizations. Music, also improves brain function, can help you focus and also eases the pain. Learn more about the benefits of studying with music.

Study Habit #9. Leave time for the last-minute review.

Here are where well-organized lecture notes come into play. Always, always leave time for the last-minute review. Here, we’re exercising the tried and true memory game. This is a technique that most students apply as one study habit. That’s just impossible for the amount of college work you’ll be taking on, but it can work quite well as a last-minute review—only if you have good notes!

Better still, ff you can pair reviewing your notes with a good night’s sleep, then you will significantly improve your ability to retain more information. Just know that studying when you’re sleepy is ineffective. If your body is telling you that you’re tired, then have a nap or go to bed early. A good night’s sleep is another technique to use that will help you understand and remember information better.

If you’re finding that you are getting stressed out or tired, reflect back on your study schedule and priorities. Make sure that you have dedicated time for rest and de-stressing activities as well.

Study Habit #10. Understand Your Best Learning Style

It’s important to know that there are many different styles of learning and each person will retain information better in different ways.

• Visual learners who learn best when pictures, images, and spatial understanding is used.
• Auditory learners who prefer using music, sounds or both.
• Kinesthetic learners actually use a more physical style of learning through using the body, sense of touch and hands.
• Logical learners need to use reasoning, logic, and systems.
• Verbal learners will prefer using words in writing and speech.
• Social learners will thrive in learning with other people or in groups.
• Solitary learners are able to learn best when alone.

Think about which style of learning works best for you, and it will help you determine how to study, where to study when to study and other important factors like what study aids you should use and be aware of, and knowing what things may distract you while you are trying to study.

Study Habit #11. Make Study Time a Part of Your Daily Routine

If cramming all of your study time into a few long days isn’t working for you then it’s time to try something new and less stressful. What you do every day is more important than what you do occasionally, so make time for studying every single day, with or without exams coming up.

Consistency is key and once you start getting into good study habits, so make it a routine that you will be able to maintain throughout the school year.

When it becomes part of your schedule, you don’t need to find the time, you’ve made time for your study sessions each month. Don’t forget to also check your schedule for the week or month, and consider your personal commitments: chores, must-attend activities, and appointments. All you need to do now is to stay committed to your new study schedule.

Make studying your priority and place these sessions when you’re at your peak performance times to make them extra effective. Some people work best in the mornings, and others, at night. Experiment with this and don’t assume that because you wake early you should study early, but instead try morning, noon, and night to see which is best.

FNU Want You To Succeed!

Try to learn and not just memorize and remember, keep it simple. Don’t try to get fancy with your study notes. They are for your eyes only and won’t be graded. The goal is to help you get a high-scoring grade. We hope this quick checklist will alleviate some anxiety you might have for managing college work. If you have questions about this or any of our degree programs, contact an FNU advisor at any of our campus locations today!

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Best Methods for Developing Effective Study Habits

• Muhammad Asif
• December 24, 2023

You can  develop effective study  habits with the help of understanding the power of rewards, the tranquility of a beautiful study environment, and the importance of self-awareness.

From setting goals that ignite your passion for learning to understanding the importance of discipline and mentorship, you need practical tips beyond the ordinary. 

I adopted some of the best methods for  building successful study habits . Here! I share a comprehensive guide on  developing good study habits  in this enlightening journey. 

What is effective study?

Effective study involves learning more in less time. It means more output for less input, which involves multiple ways of learning. Effective study aims for brilliant work focusing on the learning process. It is a purposeful and systematic approach to more productivity.

What are effective study habits?

With effective study habits, you will achieve and adopt productive and systematic behaviors or routines to increase personal, academic, and learning performance.

Reasons: Why are good study habits important?

Here are several reasons why developing effective study habits are important:

• Developing good study habits is essential for academic success and personal growth.
• It is essential to  build healthy study habits  because we sometimes get distracted as humans. We become victims of negative thoughts about our progress. Building and adapting to study habits are vital to avoid such a situation.
• Efficient study methods optimize learning time, improving information retention and understanding.
• Study habits foster discipline and responsibility, reduce stress, and increase productivity.
• Moreover, good study habits prepare you for future challenges, equipping you with transferable skills like critical thinking and time management. These are crucial in both education and the workforce.
• Forming effective study habits  is a key to time management and saving. It also makes you mentally relaxed.
• Ultimately, good study habits establish a foundation for long-term success, encouraging a lifelong commitment to personal development and the pursuit of knowledge.

11 Best Methods for Developing Effective Study Habits

There can be different ways and methods for developing effective study habits. Some of the practical tips are given as follows:

1.      Set Goals

Setting goals is one of the most essential tips for making successful study habits . Goals are your plans that keep you on the right path. They motivate and convince you to do great things. Goal setting is the best remedy for creating interest in studies.

If you find it challenging to study regularly, then set a goal.

For example, you can tell yourself you will learn two chapters today. Then, make levels for this one chapter. Level 1 may include reading two paragraphs. Level 2 may consist of reading four sections and so on.

When you set such goals, you are convincing yourself to build a study habit.

2.      Reward yourself

When you achieve the specified goals, like reading one chapter, feel free to reward yourself. There are several ways to treat yourself. You can watch a movie, a celebrity, a recent sports game you missed, talk to your favorite person, etc.

Know how to reward yourself for good habits .

Rewards are like food for humans. You can have one or two whenever you perform your studies. Don’t be ashamed and hesitate to get too many tips from yourself.

3.      Study in a beautiful place

Beauty is something that gives pleasure. It makes you feel good and fresh. You will like to read there when you have a neat and clean library, room, table, and other necessary study items. It is because your mind will feel relaxed, and your heart will find solace.

When you get command of your heart and mind through beauty, it is where you become addicted to a healthy study habit.

4.      Set a proper time

Most people find studies hard because they need to follow a proper schedule. You are at risk if you don’t decide a time of the day for reading. Make a time and table. Mention what time you want to study and for how long.

Remain consistent with your set time. Study only at that specific time and Follow the hours. After you form an effective study habit, you can study anytime.

5.      Know the requirements

Your first task for making successful study habits is to know the format and requirements of your studies. Many of you cannot learn because you must see the course expectations.

For example, our fiction teacher assigned us an assignment. She asked me to write a one-page review of the article based on our course novel. She also said we should present the same work. We didn’t write and study the report because we needed clarification as we were confused. We prepared well when asked and got clear instructions about the requirements and format.

So, it is essential to get a clear picture of what you are studying, how you should prepare for it, and so on.

6.      Practice and solve previous or model papers

Model papers are the best tools to engage your-self in healthy reading . When you successfully solve them, you get some motivation, which paves the way for building a reading routine. This strategy is helpful for exam preparation.

Practice makes a man perfect, so if you fail to develop a study routine effectively, you are safe because you know the pattern and type of questions you can expect.

7.      Learn some of the best study plans and methods

I improved my study skills after reading the book STUDY SKILLS by Stella Cottrell.

It was helpful and strategic. You can save time and energy when you start studying with a strategy. For example, SQ3R is one of the critical methods for making a healthy study schedule. Explore what SQ3R is.

You can also make your plan. Your method will be very workable and motivate you. For example, if you struggle to form an effective study habit, you can name your body organs with the chapters in your course. When you move any organ, it will directly remind you something about the system.

8.      Write your achievements

One of the tips for rewarding yourself is to write what you have completed. Note down how much you have read. For example, pick a pen and diary before sleeping and write if you have read one chapter or two or more.

Writing your achievements will give you happiness and satisfaction. Besides, it is also a way to record how much you study on a specific day.

9.      Bring variety and novelty

Don’t limit yourself to one method. Always search for new strategies. Discuss your way of reading with your colleagues and find other ways. Also, try to read different subjects on different days.

Make your reading creative and intelligent. Don’t cram, but be a competent reader.

10. Group study

While finding your strength, know if you like group study. Some people can read better when they discuss a topic in group form. If you want group discussions, request and make a group of your fellows and learn through discussions.

11. Include pleasure reading in your schedule

If you still need to improve your studies, give yourself time for pleasure reading. This is one of the best strategies to develop effective study habits . As a student, you lose interest in scientific or course reading because you must memorize it by hook or crook. But pleasure reading does not involve any such action.

Read a short story, a novel, or a poem that will make you happy. So through pleasure reading you can make successful study habits. 

How do you study effectively in college?

College is the first step in all our plans. If you become successful here, you have better chances to succeed. As you know, every type of success requires study in one way or another, and so is college. For a beneficial journey and lifelong plans to be executed, you should actively study in college.

There are many ways to perform well in college. Some of them are

Stay disciplined

Discipline is the most crucial part of successful people. Start following discipline if you want to form good study habits and make your time valuable. It will be the door to your success at college and life ahead.

Manage your time

Time management is a crucial skill. Every college student should master time management to develop an effective study schedule . You must manage time to perform any activity effectively.

Make mentors

Mentors are people who guide you towards the best. Finding a mentor in college is such a bliss that your life will be in the right direction. You can save time and energy. They can shape your future. I feel blessed as I found my mentor in my first days of college.

Select best friends

Friend selection is also significant for college students. If you want to study effectively in college , select hardworking students as your friends. They also help you form study habits that can change your life.

Mastering effective study habits is a transformative expedition that empowers you with the tools to navigate the challenges of learning and academia. From setting purposeful goals to creating a harmonious study environment, each step is a building block toward a more productive and fulfilling academic experience. As you embrace the art of self-awareness, discipline, and strategic planning, you unlock the door to success in your current educational endeavors and the broader landscape of life.

Time management is crucial for a successful study routine. Setting a specific time for studying, remaining consistent, and following a schedule contribute to forming effective study habits , allowing for better productivity.

Discipline is essential for success. Following a schedule and dedicating specific hours to study daily helps maintain consistency. Over time, as effective study habits develop, flexibility in study times becomes achievable.

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Top 10 Study Tips to Study Like a Harvard Student

Adjusting to a demanding college workload might be a challenge, but these 10 study tips can help you stay prepared and focused.

Lian Parsons

The introduction to a new college curriculum can seem overwhelming, but optimizing your study habits can boost your confidence and success both in and out of the classroom. 

Transitioning from high school to the rigor of college studies can be overwhelming for many students, and finding the best way to study with a new course load can seem like a daunting process. 

Effective study methods work because they engage multiple ways of learning. As Jessie Schwab, psychologist and preceptor at the Harvard College Writing Program, points out, we tend to misjudge our own learning. Being able to recite memorized information is not the same as actually retaining it. 

“One thing we know from decades of cognitive science research is that learners are often bad judges of their own learning,” says Schwab. “Memorization seems like learning, but in reality, we probably haven’t deeply processed that information enough for us to remember it days—or even hours—later.”

Planning ahead and finding support along the way are essential to your success in college. This blog will offer study tips and strategies to help you survive (and thrive!) in your first college class. 

1. Don’t Cram! 

It might be tempting to leave all your studying for that big exam up until the last minute, but research suggests that cramming does not improve longer term learning. 

Students may perform well on a test for which they’ve crammed, but that doesn’t mean they’ve truly learned the material, says an article from the American Psychological Association . Instead of cramming, studies have shown that studying with the goal of long-term retention is best for learning overall.   

2. Plan Ahead—and Stick To It! 

Having a study plan with set goals can help you feel more prepared and can give you a roadmap to follow. Schwab said procrastination is one mistake that students often make when transitioning to a university-level course load. 

“Oftentimes, students are used to less intensive workloads in high school, so one of my biggest pieces of advice is don’t cram,” says Schwab. “Set yourself a study schedule ahead of time and stick to it.”

3. Ask for Help

You don’t have to struggle through difficult material on your own. Many students are not used to seeking help while in high school, but seeking extra support is common in college.

As our guide to pursuing a biology major explains, “Be proactive about identifying areas where you need assistance and seek out that assistance immediately. The longer you wait, the more difficult it becomes to catch up.”

There are multiple resources to help you, including your professors, tutors, and fellow classmates. Harvard’s Academic Resource Center offers academic coaching, workshops, peer tutoring, and accountability hours for students to keep you on track.  

4. Use the Buddy System 

Your fellow students are likely going through the same struggles that you are. Reach out to classmates and form a study group to go over material together, brainstorm, and to support each other through challenges.

Having other people to study with means you can explain the material to one another, quiz each other, and build a network you can rely on throughout the rest of the class—and beyond. 

5. Find Your Learning Style

It might take a bit of time (and trial and error!) to figure out what study methods work best for you. There are a variety of ways to test your knowledge beyond simply reviewing your notes or flashcards. 

Schwab recommends trying different strategies through the process of metacognition. Metacognition involves thinking about your own cognitive processes and can help you figure out what study methods are most effective for you. 

Schwab suggests practicing the following steps:

• Before you start to read a new chapter or watch a lecture, review what you already know about the topic and what you’re expecting to learn.
• As you read or listen, take additional notes about new information, such as related topics the material reminds you of or potential connections to other courses. Also note down questions you have.
• Afterward, try to summarize what you’ve learned and seek out answers to your remaining questions. 

Explore summer courses for high school students.

6. Take Breaks

The brain can only absorb so much information at a time. According to the National Institutes of Health , research has shown that taking breaks in between study sessions boosts retention. 

Studies have shown that wakeful rest plays just as important a role as practice in learning a new skill. Rest allows our brains to compress and consolidate memories of what we just practiced. 

Make sure that you are allowing enough time, relaxation, and sleep between study sessions so your brain will be refreshed and ready to accept new information.

7. Cultivate a Productive Space

Where you study can be just as important as how you study. 

Find a space that is free of distractions and has all the materials and supplies you need on hand. Eat a snack and have a water bottle close by so you’re properly fueled for your study session. 

8. Reward Yourself

Studying can be mentally and emotionally exhausting and keeping your stamina up can be challenging.

Studies have shown that giving yourself a reward during your work can increase the enjoyment and interest in a given task.

According to an article for Science Daily , studies have shown small rewards throughout the process can help keep up motivation, rather than saving it all until the end. 

Next time you finish a particularly challenging study session, treat yourself to an ice cream or  an episode of your favorite show.

9. Review, Review, Review

Practicing the information you’ve learned is the best way to retain information. 

Researchers Elizabeth and Robert Bjork have argued that “desirable difficulties” can enhance learning. For example, testing yourself with flashcards is a more difficult process than simply reading a textbook, but will lead to better long-term learning. 

“One common analogy is weightlifting—you have to actually “exercise those muscles” in order to ultimately strengthen your memories,” adds Schwab.

10. Set Specific Goals

Setting specific goals along the way of your studying journey can show how much progress you’ve made. Psychology Today recommends using the SMART method:

• Specific: Set specific goals with an actionable plan, such as “I will study every day between 2 and 4 p.m. at the library.”  
• Measurable: Plan to study a certain number of hours or raise your exam score by a certain percent to give you a measurable benchmark.
• Realistic: It’s important that your goals be realistic so you don’t get discouraged. For example, if you currently study two hours per week, increase the time you spend to three or four hours rather than 10.
• Time-specific: Keep your goals consistent with your academic calendar and your other responsibilities.

Using a handful of these study tips can ensure that you’re getting the most out of the material in your classes and help set you up for success for the rest of your academic career and beyond. 

Learn more about our summer programs for high school students.

About the Author

Lian Parsons is a Boston-based writer and journalist. She is currently a digital content producer at Harvard’s Division of Continuing Education. Her bylines can be found at the Harvard Gazette, Boston Art Review, Radcliffe Magazine, Experience Magazine, and iPondr.

Becoming Independent: Skills You’ll Need to Survive Your First Year at College

Are you ready? Here are a few ideas on what it takes to flourish on campus.

Harvard Division of Continuing Education

The Division of Continuing Education (DCE) at Harvard University is dedicated to bringing rigorous academics and innovative teaching capabilities to those seeking to improve their lives through education. We make Harvard education accessible to lifelong learners from high school to retirement.

Daniel Wong

22 Study Habits That Guarantee Good Grades

Updated on June 6, 2023 By Daniel Wong 18 Comments

Were you hoping to get an A for your last test or exam, but your study habits got in the way?

Maybe you got a B, or maybe you did worse than that.

It’s annoying, isn’t it…

You put in all those hours of studying. You even gave up time with your friends.

So what if I could show you a way to work smarter and not harder, so you get good grades and have time for the things you enjoy and find meaningful?

Even better, what if I could guarantee it?

Well, I can.

All you have to do is adopt these 22 study habits.

(Throughout my career as a student I got straight A’s, so I can promise you that these study habits work.)

Want to get the grades you’ve always wanted while also leading a balanced life?

Then let’s get started.

Enter your email below to download a PDF summary of this article. The PDF contains all the habits found here, plus 5 exclusive bonus habits that you’ll only find in the PDF.

The best study habits.

Add these effective study habits to your routine to start getting good grades with a lot less stress.

Habit #1: Create a weekly schedule

When you schedule time for a particular task like studying, you’re saying to yourself, “I’m going to focus on studying at this time, on this date, and it’s going to take this number of hours.”

Once it’s down in writing, it becomes a reality and you’re more likely to stick to it.

This might sound weird, but it’s true.

Do this in your calendar, in a spreadsheet, or download a template – whatever works best for you.

First, think about your fixed commitments like school, sports practice, family time, religious activities and so on.

Now, decide which times around these fixed commitments are the best for you to do your work and revision each week.

Don’t worry about exactly what work you’ll be doing, or what assignments are due. Just focus on blocking out the times.

Your weekly study schedule might look something like this (the blue slots are the times you’ve blocked out to do work):

Give yourself a study-free day (or at least half a day) once a week.

Everyone needs a break, so you’re more likely to come back to the work refreshed if you give yourself permission to take some time off.

Habit #2: Create a pre-studying checklist

Have you ever heard your mother say you should never go to the supermarket without a shopping list?

You’ll wander up and down the aisles, wasting time. You’ll make poor choices about what to buy and end up with all the wrong things for dinner.

By using a shopping list, your mind will be focused. You’ll only put items in your shopping trolley that you need, checking them off as you go.

It’s no different from a checklist used by a pilot before he takes off, or a mechanic as he services a car.

Checklists are essential as you learn how to develop good study habits. They ensure that you cover all the necessary steps to achieve an outcome.

Here are some of the things that might be on your pre-studying checklist:

• Set up workspace
• Make sure your phone is in another room or turned off
• Let family members know not to disturb you until the end of the study session
• Gather together all the notes and reference books needed
• Get a glass of water

Keep your checklist handy, and tick everything off at the start of every study session.

Habit #3: Create a study plan

The purpose of a study plan is similar to that of a checklist. It keeps you on track.

When you go camping, you might have a checklist that covers all the equipment you need to pack into the car.

But you also need a road map to show you how to get to the campsite. It allows you to plan your route, and keeps you focused on your destination.

So, at the start of each study session, create a study plan.

For example, today you might need to complete a math assignment and write up the summary notes of chapter 4 of your history textbook.

Write down the key tasks, together with a list of steps you’ll need to take along the way.

To complete your math assignment, you might write:

• Read notes from math class
• Read chapter in the textbook on algebraic calculations
• Do questions 1 to 3

Your study plan will help you concentrate on what you need to get done today, without being distracted by the things that can wait until tomorrow.

Habit #4: Study offline as much as possible

When you study, you want to be focused, which means limiting all those annoying interruptions that happen when you’re online.

Switch off your Internet connection and give your brain the peace and quiet it needs to concentrate.

And while you’re at it, try not to use a laptop to take notes.

This may sound like strange advice, but research has shown that taking notes by hand is a much smarter way of learning.

When you write notes by hand, your brain absorbs the meaning of what you’re writing. But when you use a laptop, you’re not processing what you’re learning as deeply.

Habit #5: Take three deep breaths before each study session

What’s the one thing that comes to you so naturally, you don’t even think about it?

We each take about 20,000 breaths a day, so you’d think we’d be pretty good at it. But did you know that there are better ways to breathe than others ?

And guess who breathes the best? Babies.

As babies, we all take deep, relaxing breaths. These breaths push the oxygen around our bodies and into our brains, helping us to concentrate better.

But as we get older, we take shorter, faster breaths. As a result, we have trouble staying alert.

There are plenty of ways to breathe more deeply, but here’s one method you can try before you start each study session:

• Close your eyes and breathe in through your nose for four seconds
• Exhale through your mouth for four seconds
• Repeat three times

Tip: Try this just before you go to bed as well. It will help you sleep better.

Habit #6: Learn how to motivate yourself

Do you find that sometimes it’s almost impossible to start studying? In fact, your body feels like a heavy stone as you drag yourself towards your workspace.

Don’t worry. Everyone feels like that from time to time.

You just need to know how to motivate yourself to study , and to do that we’re going to create another list.

This time, write down all the reasons why you want to study hard, such as:

• I want to do my best
• I want to become more disciplined
• I want to prepare well for the future
• I want to develop perseverance
• I want to learn as much as I can

Put your list somewhere you can see it. The next time you feel like watching TV instead of studying, go through your list.

You’ll be fired up and ready to get back to your studies in no time!

Habit #7: Take notes during class

Taking notes in class is an important study tip to implement .

Think about the number of classes you go to every day at school and the mountain of information that gets thrown at you.

You’d never be able to remember everything you learned without taking notes.

Taking notes also helps you to absorb and retain information much better than just listening.

And lastly, think of your class notes as the backbone of your focused study time . They sum up what you’ve learned, and they make your study time more efficient.

(Here are some proven tips on how to take notes effectively .)

Habit #8: Review what you learned in school that day

Reviewing new information you learned in class is one of the most effective study habits you can develop.

Before the end of each day, read the notes you took or re-read the chapter that your teacher taught in class.

It won’t take long to do, and it will help you retain what you learned. It will also make the process of moving the information from short-term to long-term memory smoother.

Habit #9: Read your notes before you start doing your homework

This is similar to the last study habit we talked about.

The first thing you should do in your study session is to re-read the notes you took in class before you start the homework assignment for that topic.

Don’t forget to include this task in your study plan (see Habit #3).

It will refresh your memory, so you’ll be well prepared to tackle the assignment and you’ll finish your homework faster .

Habit #10: Get at least eight hours of sleep every night

We all know that a good night’s sleep makes us more alert and energised the next day.

But did you know that it also improves your memory and makes you a better student ?

You probably think there’s no way a top student could get enough sleep, but you’re wrong. In fact, getting eight hours of sleep before an exam is more effective than staying up late, trying to cram all the information in.

The best way to make sure you get eight hours of good quality sleep is to go to bed at the same time each night. (Set an alarm to remind you, if necessary.)

Read a chapter of a book, but don’t read it on your phone or tablet. This is because the light from such screens makes it difficult for the brain to wind down and inhibits melatonin production.

In addition, turn off phones and other electronic devices that may disturb you during the night.

Habit #11: Create an environment that helps you study

Trying to work in a noisy room, or one with poor lighting, is going to make your study time less effective.

To develop good study habits, take a few minutes to ensure your workspace is conducive to studying.

Here are a few things to think about:

• Do you have the necessary supplies and stationery within reach?
• Is the lighting adequate?
• Make sure your desk is tidy and uncluttered (do this before and after each study session)
• Is the room at the right temperature?
• Is your work chair comfortable?
• Is the room quiet? (Use earplugs if necessary)
• Is your phone switched off?
• Delete any apps on your phone that you might be tempted to open when you should be studying
• Are there any other distractions in the room that might disturb you, like a magazine or the TV? Switch them off or remove them altogether.

Habit #12: Time your study sessions and breaks

Do you find it hard to concentrate for more than 45 minutes at a time? That’s perfectly normal.

In fact, I’d recommend that you take a 5-minute break from studying every 30 to 40 minutes.

Don’t fall into the study habit of stretching out your break so it ends up being longer than your study time, though.

When you start a study session, set a timer for 30 to 40 minutes and then take a break. Likewise, set the timer for the end of the break so you know when to get back to work.

Habit #13: When you take a study break, step away from your desk

To develop good study habits, don’t forget to take breaks and use them wisely.

Step away from your desk and do something completely different to give your brain a break, as well as your body. Go for a short walk around the block or get a snack from the kitchen.

I encourage you not to watch a video, turn on the TV or check your social media news feed.

This is because these activities won’t give your brain a proper break.

Habit #14: Make use of the breaks you have during the school day

Do you have a long break in the middle of the school day or after lunch?

Is there something useful you could be doing with this time?

Maybe you could review the notes you took that morning or start preparing your study plan for later in the day.

Another great use of your free time is to seek out a fellow student and talk about what you’ve just learned. This is especially so if you need some clarification, or if you have doubts about something.

Don’t be afraid to ask questions. It’s an excellent way to learn faster and better.

Habit #15: Stay on top of your homework

This may sound like an obvious habit to cultivate as a student , but I’m often surprised by the number of students who let their homework pile up.

If it gets out of hand, just the thought of doing your homework can become overwhelming and stressful.

Before you know it, you’ll find yourself working so hard to catch up, you’ll have no time to study for important tests and exams, which are stressful enough on their own .

One of the most effective study habits to practise is to start your homework on the day it’s assigned.

At the very least, take a look at the questions while the information you learned is still fresh in your mind.

That way, if you have to come back to it later, you’ll have a rough framework as a starting point, making it much easier to complete.

Habit #16: Ask your teachers for help at least once a week

Your teachers are there to help you succeed . Don’t be afraid to reach out to them.

Asking for help is a crucial study habit to cultivate.

Include asking for help in your weekly schedule (see Habit #1) and keep a list of any questions you think of during the week.

Bring the list of questions with you, and don’t let them pile up.

If you let the questions pile up, you may start to feel overwhelmed, and you may become reluctant to seek help.

Habit #17: Use a planner to keep track of assignments and deadlines

If you’re not organised when it comes to things related to school , you’ll waste precious time doing last-minute work you forgot about.

Or you may stay up late to finish an assignment you should have started a week earlier.

Use a planner to keep track of important dates, tasks and deadlines. You can either use a physical diary or an online one like Google Calendar.

The important thing is to keep your planner up to date, so you don’t have to rely on your memory or wait for your teachers to remind you.

Planning and studying effectively will improve your test-taking skills and performance.

Don’t just include the date of a test, for example, when you use your planner. Include a reminder to start revising for the test well in advance.

And review your planner at least once a week. Every Monday, go through all the upcoming deadlines, and prioritise the tasks and projects you’ll need to keep on top of for the week.

Habit #18: Test yourself periodically

Don’t wait for regular tests and exams to come around before you start studying. Set mini-tests for yourself every few weeks.

You may have reviewed your class notes once, but it doesn’t mean the information has been absorbed or effectively memorised for a future exam.

Here’s how to test yourself…

When you review your class notes, highlight some of the key things you’ve learned.

For example, in history it might be the date of an important event. Write down some test questions on a separate sheet of paper as you go, such as “When did the war start?” or “What caused the civil war?”

The next day, pull out the test questions and see how many answers you can remember.

It takes some effort to succeed at a test you give yourself, but that effort will be rewarded when it comes to exam time.

Habit #19: Check your work before you consider it done

When you finish an assignment, don’t consider it done until you’ve double-checked your work for careless mistakes.

Here’s what you should be looking out for:

• Spelling mistakes
• Grammar mistakes
• Poor presentation
• Have I responded to the question?
• Have I left out key facts?
• Have I got the equations correct?

Habit #20: Keep a “worry” list

It’s common for students to worry about not doing well, but it’s a distracting pastime.

When you worry about something, it can hinder your ability to focus on learning and improving.

That’s why you need to keep a “worry” list.

Strange as it may sound, research has shown that writing down a list of your fears about school can actually improve your grades.

When you write down a list of your worries, it’s as though you’re unloading your anxieties and freeing up your brain to concentrate on learning.

So whenever a worry pops into your mind, write it down and move on.

Habit #21: Use online resources (if your teacher isn’t available)

Your teacher should be the first person you go to with a question or concern about the class material – unless you can easily find the answer on the Internet.

But if your teachers aren’t available when you need something clarified (which often happens in the middle of study time), there are some great online resources you can use.

Here are some of them:

• Khan Academy
• BBC Bitesize
• Mathispower4u

Habit #22: If you struggle with procrastination, use the Pomodoro Technique

Procrastination or a lack of focus is a big problem during study time.

We’ve already talked about the need to take regular breaks (see Habit #13), but there’s another method you might find useful.

It’s called the Pomodoro Technique.

The idea is that you’ll stay on top of your work if you break your study periods up into focused but manageable bursts of 25 minutes.

This is instead of trying to concentrate for two hours or more at a go, which takes a lot of energy and willpower.

The objective is to train your brain to focus on a task that needs to be completed and postpone all distractions until later.

Here’s how it works:

• Set a timer for 25 minutes
• Concentrate 100% on studying until the timer rings
• Take a five-minute break – and remember to step away from your desk
• Repeat until the end of your study session

Here are some apps you can try:

• Focus Booster – This is available for desktop and mobile devices. You can download the starter version for free.
• Marinara Timer – This one is free and doesn’t need downloading. Just open it up and start the timer.

Check out this article for even more apps you can use.

Start practising your new study habits

Well done! You’ve read about the 22 study habits that are guaranteed to improve your grades.

(On top of that, here are 8 bad study habits you’ll want to avoid.)

Reading about these habits is a great start. But nothing’s going to change if you just click away from this article.

If you’re wondering how to get good grades , you need to take action – every day, every week, and every month. Start tomorrow with just one new study habit. Make it part of your daily routine.

After a week, pick another one and put it into practice.

Before you know it, you’re going to turn those disappointing B’s and C’s into straight A’s. I guarantee it!

Like this article? Please share it with your friends.

July 31, 2019 at 7:50 pm

Thanks for the study habits, I will definitely use them in my daily life.

July 31, 2019 at 8:08 pm

You’re welcome, Greta.

August 1, 2019 at 3:03 pm

Thanks, Daniel, for making the points simple, clear and doable!

August 1, 2019 at 3:46 pm

You’re welcome!

August 2, 2019 at 8:53 am

thank you so much for the tips sir. my A/L are literally in next two days. it will be very helpful if you can send me some tips about how to work during the exam time and now…….TBH I just want to take at least 3Bs…..thank you again for everything.

August 2, 2019 at 10:56 am

You’re welcome. All the best for your exams! I’ve actually created this guide ( https://www.daniel-wong.com/taking-tests-exams/ ), which should help you do much better for your exams.

August 2, 2019 at 12:33 pm

Thank you so much…

August 3, 2019 at 6:14 am

Ur an amazing tutor Daniel!

August 3, 2019 at 8:14 am

I don’t really consider myself a tutor, but I’m glad that you found the article useful!

August 18, 2019 at 3:02 am

Thank you so much. You have been a great help! especially all your free pdfs have helped me be a lot more organized. Thanks a lot!

September 23, 2019 at 4:16 am

Great tips. Thank you Daniel for sharing

February 1, 2020 at 2:54 pm

You are great! I also remained an a grader for long but lost track with your tips I will be back

April 5, 2020 at 6:53 pm

Hi. Hope you doing well. Great tips. Are these tips good for the university too? or they are just for school time? BTW I read your website every day! You are amazing. God bless you

November 14, 2020 at 4:02 am

Some of them sound as if they are for university, so I would say both.

August 8, 2020 at 11:43 pm

Simply the best and so practical and nicely presented i like a lot. Keep it up!

Really good job doing for the students and even for professionals this is going to help a lot.

January 6, 2021 at 11:06 pm

Great article

January 7, 2021 at 9:31 pm

The most important habits I am trying to adopt this semester are #1 Create a weekly schedule. #3 Create a study plan. #4 Study offline as much as possible.

September 26, 2021 at 12:53 am

THIS IS GOING TO HELP ME THANKS.

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Building Effective Study Habits: Strategies for Academic Success

Developing effective study habits is crucial for achieving academic success. By implementing proven strategies, you can optimize your learning, retain information more efficiently, and perform well in your studies. Here's a comprehensive guide to building effective study habits:

1. Create a Productive Study Environment:

A productive study environment plays a crucial role in enhancing your focus, concentration, and overall study experience. By designing a space that minimizes distractions and promotes effective learning, you can optimize your study sessions and achieve better academic outcomes. Here's how to create a productive study environment:

1. Choose the Right Location:

   - Select a quiet and comfortable place for studying. This could be a dedicated study room, a corner of your room, a library, or a quiet café.

2. Eliminate Distractions:

   - Identify potential distractions and minimize them. Keep your phone on silent or in another room, close irrelevant tabs on your computer, and let family members or roommates know you're studying.

3. Ensure Good Lighting:

   - Use adequate lighting that is easy on your eyes. Natural light is ideal, but if that's not possible, opt for a bright, non-glaring artificial light source.

4. Organize Your Space:

   - Keep your study area clutter-free and well-organized. Use storage solutions like shelves, drawers, and organizers to keep materials easily accessible.

5. Ergonomics Matters:

   - Use a comfortable chair and a desk or table at an appropriate height. Maintain good posture to prevent discomfort during long study sessions.

6. Comfortable Seating:

   - Choose a chair that offers proper support to your back. Comfortable seating prevents physical strain during extended periods of studying.

7. Personalize the Space:

   - Decorate your study area with motivational quotes, plants, or artwork that inspires you. Personal touches can make the environment more inviting.

8. Keep Supplies Handy:

   - Have all your study materials within reach, including textbooks, notebooks, stationery, and any necessary electronics.

9. High-Quality Equipment:

   - Invest in good-quality equipment, such as a reliable laptop, a comfortable keyboard, and noise-canceling headphones if needed.

10. Use Whiteboards or Corkboards:

    - Hang a whiteboard or corkboard on the wall for jotting down important notes, to-do lists, and reminders.

11. Time Management Tools:

    - Place a clock or a timer on your desk to help you manage your study sessions and breaks effectively.

12. Proper Ventilation:

    - Ensure the study area is well-ventilated to maintain fresh air and prevent feeling stuffy or sluggish.

13. Background Music or Ambience:

    - Some individuals find ambient background noise or instrumental music helpful for concentration. Experiment to see if it works for you.

14. Establish a Routine:

    - Create a consistent study routine in your chosen environment. The more consistent your study schedule, the more your brain associates the space with focused work.

15. Boundaries and Signals:

    - Set boundaries with others in your household, indicating when you're studying. You could use headphones, closed doors, or a "do not disturb" sign.

16. Break Areas:

    - Designate a separate area or space for breaks. This helps you mentally switch gears between study and relaxation.

17. Maintain Cleanliness:

    - Regularly clean and organize your study area to ensure it remains conducive to focused work.

18. Adjust for Comfort:

    - Pay attention to temperature and humidity levels. Adjust the room's temperature to ensure your comfort during study sessions.

19. Limit Multitasking:

    - Reserve your study area exclusively for studying. Avoid using it for activities like socializing, eating, or watching TV.

20. Personal Reflection:

    - Periodically reflect on your study environment. If something isn't working, don't hesitate to make adjustments.

Creating a productive study environment enhances your concentration, minimizes distractions, and sets the tone for effective learning. By customizing your space to suit your preferences and needs, you'll establish a study routine that maximizes your productivity and helps you achieve your academic goals.

2. Set Clear Goals:

Clear goals provide you with direction, motivation, and a sense of purpose in your academic journey. Whether you're preparing for exams, working on projects, or striving for continuous improvement, well-defined goals help you stay focused and organized. Here's a comprehensive guide to setting clear goals for academic success:

1. Define Your Objectives:

   - Start by identifying what you want to achieve. Whether it's excelling in a particular subject, earning a specific grade, or completing a project, clarity is key.

2. Make Goals Specific:

   - Make your goals specific and concrete. Avoid vague statements like "do well in chemistry." Instead, specify that you want to "achieve an A grade in chemistry by the end of the semester."

3. Use the SMART Criteria:

   - Apply the SMART criteria to your goals:

     - Specific: Clearly define what you want to accomplish.

     - Measurable: Set criteria to measure your progress and determine when the goal is achieved.

     - Achievable: Ensure the goal is realistic and attainable within your capabilities.

     - Relevant: Align the goal with your broader academic and personal aspirations.

     - Time-Bound: Set a deadline for achieving the goal. This adds a sense of urgency.

4. Break Down Larger Goals:

   - If you have big goals, break them down into smaller, manageable steps. This makes the process less overwhelming and allows you to track progress.

5. Prioritize Your Goals:

   - Determine the order of importance for your goals. Focus on high-priority goals while keeping other objectives in mind.

6. Establish Short-Term and Long-Term Goals:

   - Create a mix of short-term goals (achievable within days or weeks) and long-term goals (spanning months or semesters).

7. Write Them Down:

   - Put your goals in writing. This adds a level of commitment and helps reinforce your intention to achieve them.

8. Visualize Success:

   - Imagine yourself achieving your goals. Visualizing success can boost motivation and provide a sense of accomplishment.

9. Monitor Progress:

   - Regularly track your progress toward your goals. Use tools like to-do lists, calendars, or tracking apps to stay on top of your tasks.

10. Celebrate Milestones:

    - Celebrate your achievements along the way. Recognizing milestones keeps you motivated and energized.

11. Be Realistic:

    - Set goals that are challenging yet attainable. Unrealistic goals can lead to frustration and demotivation.

12. Adapt and Adjust:

    - Be flexible and open to adjusting your goals as circumstances change. Life is dynamic, and goals may need to be adapted accordingly.

13. Stay Committed:

    - Maintain a strong commitment to your goals, even when faced with challenges or setbacks.

14. Seek Accountability:

    - Share your goals with a friend, family member, or mentor who can provide support, encouragement, and accountability.

15. Review and Reflect:

    - Regularly review your goals to ensure you're on track. Reflect on your progress and make any necessary adjustments.

16. Avoid Overloading:

    - While setting goals is important, avoid setting too many at once. Focus on a manageable number to prevent overwhelm.

17. Embrace Continuous Learning:

    - Embrace the journey of learning and growth. Each step you take toward your goals contributes to your overall development.

Setting clear goals empowers you to direct your efforts effectively and make meaningful progress in your academic pursuits. By following these guidelines and consistently pursuing your objectives, you'll be better equipped to overcome challenges, stay motivated, and achieve academic excellence.

3. Use the Pomodoro Technique:

The Pomodoro Technique is a powerful time management method designed to improve focus, productivity, and concentration during study sessions. Named after the Italian word for "tomato" (inspired by a kitchen timer), this technique involves breaking your study time into short intervals with brief breaks in between. Here's how to leverage the Pomodoro Technique for effective studying:

1. Set a Timer:

   - Choose a task you want to work on, such as studying a specific topic. Set a timer for a predetermined period, typically 25 minutes (a "Pomodoro").

2. Study Intensely:

   - During the Pomodoro interval, focus exclusively on your chosen task. Avoid distractions and work with full concentration.

3. Avoid Multitasking:

   - Concentrate on one task at a time. Multitasking can decrease your overall productivity and quality of work.

4. Embrace the Silence:

   - Find a quiet place to work where you can immerse yourself in your studies without interruptions.

5. Work Until the Timer Rings:

   - Commit to staying focused on your task for the entire Pomodoro interval. Avoid checking emails, messages, or other tasks.

6. Take a Short Break:

   - Once the timer rings, take a 5-minute break. Use this time to relax, stretch, or do a quick mental reset.

7. Repeat and Rest:

   - After completing four Pomodoros (each followed by a short break), take a longer break of 15-30 minutes to recharge.

8. Adapt to Your Needs:

   - Adjust the Pomodoro intervals based on your attention span. Some people find 25 minutes effective, while others prefer shorter or longer intervals.

9. Stay Consistent:

    - Stick to the Pomodoro Technique consistently. The routine helps train your brain to focus during study sessions.

10. Use a Timer or App:

    - Use a physical timer, a Pomodoro app, or the timer on your phone to keep track of your intervals.

11. Set Achievable Goals:

    - Break your tasks into smaller, manageable chunks that can be completed within a single Pomodoro.

12. Minimize Burnout:

    - Short, regular breaks help prevent mental fatigue and burnout, ensuring sustained productivity.

13. Avoid Overextension:

    - While the technique promotes focused work, don't force yourself to complete too many Pomodoros in a row. Listen to your body and mind.

14. Adjust Break Activities:

    - During breaks, engage in activities that help you recharge and refocus. Avoid activities that might further distract you.

15. Reflect and Adjust:

    - After using the Pomodoro Technique, reflect on your productivity. Adjust the duration of intervals or breaks if needed.

16. Stay Hydrated:

    - Use your breaks to stay hydrated by drinking water, which can help maintain cognitive function.

By using the Pomodoro Technique, you can overcome procrastination, stay engaged in your studies, and make significant progress with your tasks. This technique encourages disciplined work while preventing burnout, allowing you to achieve better results in less time and with improved focus.

4. Prioritize Time Management:

Effective time management is a cornerstone of academic success and overall well-being. By prioritizing your tasks, organizing your schedule, and making the most of your time, you can achieve more with less stress. Here's a comprehensive guide to prioritizing time management:

1. Set Clear Goals:

   - Define your short-term and long-term goals. These goals will guide your time allocation and decision-making.

2. Create a To-Do List:

   - List all the tasks you need to accomplish. Include both academic and non-academic responsibilities.

3. Categorize Tasks:

   - Categorize tasks into urgent, important, and non-urgent categories. This helps you identify what needs immediate attention.

4. Use the Eisenhower Matrix:

   - Divide your tasks using the Eisenhower Matrix:

     - Urgent and Important: Prioritize and tackle these tasks first.

     - Important but Not Urgent: Schedule these tasks for later.

     - Urgent but Not Important: Delegate or minimize these tasks.

     - Not Urgent or Important: Consider whether these tasks are necessary.

5. Rank Tasks by Priority:

   - Within each category, rank tasks based on their significance and impact on your goals.

6. Apply the 80/20 Rule (Pareto Principle):

   - Focus on tasks that contribute to 80% of your desired outcomes. Eliminate or delegate tasks with lower impact.

7. Use a Time Management System:

   - Utilize tools like calendars, planners, or digital apps to organize your schedule and tasks.

8. Block Out Study Time:

   - Allocate specific time blocks for studying, and treat these blocks as non-negotiable appointments.

9. Avoid Overcommitment:

    - Be realistic about how much you can accomplish in a day. Avoid overcommitting and spreading yourself too thin.

10. Prioritize Health and Well-being:

    - Dedicate time for exercise, sleep, and relaxation. A healthy mind and body enhance productivity.

11. Break Tasks into Chunks:

    - Divide larger tasks into smaller, manageable chunks. This prevents overwhelm and helps you make steady progress.

12. Use Time Blocking:

    - Allocate specific time blocks for different tasks. This creates a structured schedule and prevents multitasking.

13. Minimize Procrastination:

    - Start with the most challenging or least enjoyable tasks first. Tackling them early can boost your motivation.

14. Limit Distractions:

    - During focused work periods, eliminate distractions such as social media, notifications, and unrelated tasks.

15. Set Time Limits:

    - Assign a specific time limit to each task. This prevents tasks from expanding beyond their necessary duration.

16. Review and Reflect:

    - At the end of each day or week, review your accomplishments and areas for improvement. Adjust your strategies as needed.

17. Embrace Flexibility:

    - While schedules are important, be flexible in adapting to unexpected changes and new priorities.

18. Learn to Say No:

    - Politely decline tasks or commitments that don't align with your goals or will overload your schedule.

19. Monitor Your Progress:

    - Regularly assess your time management habits and make adjustments to improve your efficiency.

20. Reward Yourself:

    - Celebrate your accomplishments. Reward yourself for completing tasks and staying on track.

By mastering time management, you can achieve a balanced and productive lifestyle. Prioritizing your tasks, setting clear boundaries, and making deliberate choices about how you spend your time will enable you to excel academically while maintaining your overall well-being.

5. Active Learning Strategies:

Active learning is a dynamic approach that engages your mind in the learning process, promoting deeper understanding, retention, and critical thinking. Instead of passively absorbing information, active learning encourages you to interact, reflect, and apply knowledge actively. Here are effective active learning strategies to enhance your learning experience:

1. Discussion and Group Activities:

   - Engage in group discussions, study sessions, or collaborative projects. Sharing ideas and perspectives fosters a deeper understanding of concepts.

2. Concept Mapping:

   - Create visual concept maps to illustrate relationships between different ideas or concepts. This enhances your organizational skills and helps you see the bigger picture.

3. Peer Teaching:

   - Teach a concept or topic to a peer. Explaining concepts in your own words solidifies your understanding and identifies areas you need to review.

4. Problem-Solving and Application:

   - Apply theories and concepts to real-world scenarios or practice problems. This bridges the gap between theory and practical application.

5. Interactive Technology:

   - Utilize interactive simulations, online quizzes, or educational apps to engage with content in a dynamic and visual way.

6. Role-Playing:

   - Act out scenarios that involve applying concepts. This technique helps you view situations from different perspectives.

7. Think-Pair-Share:

   - Think individually about a question or concept, pair up with a partner to discuss your thoughts, and then share your insights with the class.

8. Socratic Questioning:

   - Ask and answer thought-provoking questions that encourage critical thinking and deeper exploration of concepts.

9. Self-Testing:

    - Quiz yourself on key concepts or terms. Self-testing enhances memory retrieval and helps you identify areas that require further review.

10. Reflection Journals:

    - Maintain a journal where you reflect on your learning experiences, insights, and challenges. This encourages metacognition and self-awareness.

11. Case Studies:

    - Analyze real or hypothetical cases to apply concepts to complex situations. Case studies promote critical thinking and problem-solving skills.

12. Debate and Argumentation:

    - Engage in structured debates where you defend a particular viewpoint. This sharpens your analytical skills and encourages logical reasoning.

13. Visual Aids and Demonstrations:

    - Use diagrams, charts, models, or demonstrations to illustrate complex concepts visually.

14. Role of Feedback:

    - Seek feedback from peers, instructors, or mentors. Constructive feedback helps you identify strengths and areas for improvement.

15. Active Note-Taking:

    - Summarize and rephrase lecture content in your own words during note-taking. This processing aids understanding and memory retention.

16. Active Reading Strategies:

    - Highlight key points, jot down notes, and ask questions while reading. Engage with the material actively rather than passively.

17. Mnemonics and Acronyms:

    - Create memory aids like mnemonics or acronyms to remember complex information.

18. Experimentation and Exploration:

    - Conduct hands-on experiments or explore concepts through simulations, if applicable to your field of study.

19. Regular Review:

    - Periodically revisit and review material to reinforce your learning and prevent forgetting.

20. Combine Strategies:

    - Mix and match different active learning strategies to cater to different learning styles and optimize your understanding.

Embracing active learning strategies transforms your learning experience into an interactive and meaningful process. By engaging with content in diverse ways and taking an active role in your education, you'll build a stronger foundation of knowledge, critical thinking skills, and problem-solving abilities.

Building effective study habits takes time and commitment, but the results are well worth the effort. By incorporating these strategies into your routine, you'll enhance your learning experience, boost your academic performance, and develop skills that will benefit you throughout your educational journey.

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To What Extent Do Study Habits Relate to Performance?

Elise m. walck-shannon.

† Biology Department, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130

Shaina F. Rowell

‡ Center for Integrative Research on Cognition, Learning, and Education (CIRCLE), Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130

Regina F. Frey

§ Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112

Associated Data

Students’ study sessions outside class are important learning opportunities in college courses. However, we often depend on students to study effectively without explicit instruction. In this study, we described students’ self-reported study habits and related those habits to their performance on exams. Notably, in these analyses, we controlled for potential confounds, such as academic preparation, self-reported class absences, and self-reported total study time. First, we found that, on average, students used approximately four active strategies to study and that they spent about half of their study time using active strategies. In addition, both the number of active strategies and the proportion of their study time using active strategies positively predicted exam performance. Second, on average, students started studying 6 days before an exam, but how early a student started studying was not related to performance on in-term (immediate) or cumulative (delayed) exams. Third, on average, students reported being distracted about 20% of their study time, and distraction while studying negatively predicted exam performance. These results add nuance to lab findings and help instructors prioritize study habits to target for change.

INTRODUCTION

One of our goals in college courses is to help students develop into independent, self-regulated learners. This requires students to perform several metacognitive tasks on their own, including setting goals, choosing strategies, monitoring and reflecting on performance, and modifying those steps over time ( Zimmerman, 2002 ). There are many challenges that learners encounter in developing self-regulation. One such challenge is that students often misjudge their learning during the monitoring and reflection phases ( Kornell and Bjork, 2007 ). Often, students feel that they learn more from cognitively superficial tasks than from cognitively effortful tasks. As one example, students may feel that they have learned more if they reread a text passage multiple times than if they are quizzed on that same material ( Karpicke and Roediger, 2008 ). In contrast to students’ judgments, many effortful tasks are highly effective for learning. R. A. Bjork defines these effective, effortful tasks as desirable difficulties ( Bjork, 1994 ). In the present study, we investigated the frequency with which students reported carrying out effortful (active) or superficial (passive) study habits in a large introductory biology course. Additionally, we examined the relationship between study habits and performance on exams while controlling for prior academic preparation and total study time.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Why would difficulties be desirable.

During learning, the goal is to generate knowledge or skills that are robustly integrated with related knowledge and easily accessible. Desirable difficulties promote cognitive processes that either aid forming robust, interconnected knowledge or skills or retrieving that knowledge or skill ( Bjork, 1994 ; also see Marsh and Butler, 2013 , for a chapter written for educators). Learners employing desirable difficulties may feel that they put in more effort and make more mistakes, but they are actually realizing larger gains toward long-term learning than learners using cognitively superficial tasks.

Which Study Habits Are Difficult in a Desirable Way?

Study habits can include a wide variety of behaviors, from the amount of time that students study, to the strategies that they use while studying, to the environment in which they study. The desirable difficulties framework ( Bjork and Bjork, 2011 ), describes two main kinds of effective habits that apply to our study: 1) using effortful study strategies or techniques that prompt students to generate something or test themselves during studying and 2) distributing study time into multiple sessions to avoid “cramming” near the exam. In the following two paragraphs, we expand upon these study habits of interest.

The desirable difficulties framework suggests that study strategies whereby students actively generate a product or test themselves promote greater long-term learning than study strategies whereby students passively consume presentations. This is supported by strong evidence for the “generation effect,” in which new knowledge or skills are more robustly encoded and retrieved if you generate a solution, explanation, or summary, rather than looking it up ( Jacoby, 1978 ). A few generative strategies that are commonly reported among students—summarization, self-explanation, and practice testing—are compared below. Summarization is a learning strategy in which students identify key points and combine them into a succinct explanation in their own words. As predicted by the generation effect, evidence suggests that summarization is more effective than rewriting notes (e.g., laboratory study by Bretzing and Kulhavy, 1979 ) or reviewing notes (e.g., classroom study by King, 1992 ). Self-explanation is a learning strategy wherein students ask “how” and “why” questions for material as they are being exposed to the material or shortly after ( Berry, 1983 ). This is one form of elaborative interrogation, a robust memory technique in which learners generate more expansive details for new knowledge to help them remember that information ( Pressley et al. , 1987 ). Self-explanation requires little instruction and seems to be helpful for a broad array of tasks, including recall, comprehension, and transfer. Further, it is more effective than summarization (e.g., classroom study by King, 1992 ), perhaps because it prompts students to make additional connections between new and existing knowledge. Practice testing is supported by evidence of the “testing effect,” for which retrieving information itself actually promotes learning ( Karpicke and Roediger, 2008 ). The memory benefits of the “testing effect” can be achieved with any strategy in which students complete problems or practice retrieval without relying on external materials (quizzing, practice testing, flashcards, etc.). In this study, we refer to these strategies together as “self-quizzing.” Self-quizzing is especially effective at improving performance on delayed tests, even as long as 9–11 months after initial learning ( Carpenter, 2009 ). Additionally, in the laboratory, self-quizzing has been shown to be effective on a range of tasks from recall to inference ( Karpicke and Blunt, 2011 ). Overall, research suggests that active, more effortful strategies—such as self-quizzing, summarization, and self-explanation—are more effective for learning than passive strategies—such as rereading and rewriting notes. In this study, we asked whether these laboratory findings would extend to students’ self-directed study time, focusing especially on the effectiveness of effortful (herein, “active”) study strategies.

The second effective habit described by the desirable difficulties framework is to avoid cramming study time near exam time. The “spacing effect” describes the phenomenon wherein, when given equal study time, spacing study out into multiple sessions promotes greater long-term learning than massing (i.e., cramming) study into one study session. Like the “testing effect,” the “spacing effect” is especially pronounced for longer-term tests in the laboratory ( Rawson and Kintsch, 2005 ). Based on laboratory studies, we would expect that, in a course context, cramming study time into fewer sessions close to an exam would be less desirable for long-term learning than distributing study time over multiple sessions, especially if that learning is measured on a delay.

However, estimating spacing in practice is more complicated. Classroom studies have used two main methodologies to estimate spacing, either asking the students to report their study schedules directly ( Susser and McCabe, 2013 ) or asking students to choose whether they describe their pattern of study as spaced out or occurring in one session ( Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012 ; Rodriguez et al. , 2018 ). The results from these analyses have been mixed; in some cases, spacing has been a significant, positive predictor of performance ( Rodriquez et al. , 2018 ; Susser and McCabe, 2013 ), but in other cases it has not ( Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012 ).

In the present study, we do not claim measure spacing directly. Lab definitions of spacing are based on studying the same topic over multiple sessions. But, because our exams have multiple topics, some students who start studying early may not revisit the same topic in multiple sessions. Rather, in this study, we measure what we refer to as “spacing potential.” For example, if students study only on the day before the exam, there is little potential for spacing. If, instead, they are studying across 7 days, there is more potential for spacing. We collected two spacing potential measurements: (1) cramming , or the number of days in advance that a student began studying for the exam; and (2) consistency , or the number of days in the week leading up to an exam that a student studied. Based on our measurements, students with a higher spacing potential would exhibit less cramming and study more consistently than students with lower spacing potential. Because not every student with a high spacing potential may actually space out the studying of a single topic into multiple sessions, spacing potential is likely to underestimate the spacing effect; however, it is a practical way to indirectly estimate spacing in practice.

Importantly, not all difficult, or effortful, study tasks are desirable ( Bjork and Bjork, 2011 ). For example, in the present study, we examined students’ level of distraction while studying. Distraction can come in many forms, commonly “multitasking,” or splitting one’s attention among multiple tasks (e.g., watching lectures while also scrolling through social media). However, multitasking has been shown to decrease working memory for the study tasks at hand ( May and Elder, 2018 ). Thus, it may make a task more difficult, but in a way that interferes with learning rather than contributing to it.

In summary, available research suggests that active, effortful study strategies are more effective than passive ones; that cramming is less effective than distributing studying over time; and that focused study is more effective than distracted study. Whether students choose to use these more effective practices during their independent study time is a separate question.

How Do Students Actually Study for Their Courses?

There have been several studies surveying students’ general study habits. When asked free-response questions about their study strategies in general, students listed an average of 2.9 total strategies ( Karpicke et al. , 2009 ). In addition, few students listed active strategies, such as self-quizzing, but many students listed more passive strategies, such as rereading.

There have also been studies asking whether what students actually do while they are studying is related to their achievement. Hartwig and Dunlosky (2012) surveyed 324 college students about their general study habits and found that self-quizzing and rereading were positively correlated with grade point average (GPA). Other studies have shown that using Facebook or texting during study sessions was negatively associated with college GPA ( Junco, 2012 ; Junco and Cotten, 2012 ). While these findings are suggestive, we suspect that the use of study strategies and the relationship between study strategies and achievement may differ from discipline to discipline. The research we have reviewed thus far has been conducted for students’ “general” study habits, rather than for specific courses. To learn about how study habits relate to learning biology, it is necessary to look at study habits within the context of biology courses.

How Do Students Study for Biology Courses?

Several prior qualitative studies carried out within the context of specific biology courses have shown that students often report ineffective habits, such as favoring passive strategies or cramming. Hora and Oleson ( 2017 ) found that, when asked about study habits in focus groups, students in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) courses (including biology) used predominantly passive strategies such as reviewing notes or texts, practices that in some cases were unchanged from high school. Tomanek and Montplaisir (2004) found that the majority of 13 interviewed students answered questions on old exams (100% of students) and reread lecture slides (92.3% of students) or the textbook (61.5% of students) to study for a biology exam, but only a small minority participated in deeper tasks such as explaining concepts to a peer (7.7% of students) or generating flashcards for retrieval practice (7.7% of students). We can also learn indirectly about students’ study habits by analyzing what they would change upon reflection. For example, in another study within an introductory biology classroom, Stanton and colleagues ( 2015 ) asked students what they would change about their studying for the next exam. In this context, 13.5% of students said that using active strategies would be more effective for learning, and 55.5% said that they wanted to spend more time studying, many of whom reported following through by studying earlier for the next exam ( Stanton et al. , 2015 ). In the current study, we extended prior research by exploring the prevalence of multiple study habits simultaneously, including the use of active study strategy and study timing, in a large sample of introductory biology students.

In addition to characterizing students’ study habits, we also aimed to show how those study habits were related to performance in a biology classroom. In one existing study, there were positive associations between exam performance and some (but not all) active strategies—such as completing practice exams and taking notes—but no significant associations between performance and some more passive strategies—such as reviewing notes/screencasts or reviewing the textbook ( Sebesta and Bray Speth, 2017 ). In another study, both self-reported study patterns (e.g., spacing studies into multiple sessions or one single session) and self-quizzing were positively related to overall course grade in a molecular biology course ( Rodriguez et al. , 2018 ). We build on this previous work by asking whether associations between performance and a wide variety of study habits still hold when controlling for confounding variables, such as student preparation and total study time.

In this study, we asked whether students actually use cognitive psychologists’ recommendations from the desirable difficulty framework in a specific biology course, and we investigated whether students who reported using those recommendations during studying performed differently on exams than those who did not. We wanted to focus on how students spend their study time, rather than the amount of time that they study, their level of preparation, or engagement. Therefore, we used regression analyses to hold preparation (i.e., ACT math and the course pretest scores), self-reported class absences, and overall study time equal. In this way, we estimated the relationship between particular study habit variables—including the strategies that students use, their timing of using those strategies, and their level of distraction while studying—and exam performance.

Based on previous research and the desirable difficulties framework, we hypothesized that:

• Students would use a combination of active and passive strategies, but those who used more active study strategies or who devoted more of their study time to active strategies would perform higher on their exams than those who used fewer active strategies or devoted less time to active strategies.
• Students would vary in their study timing, but those with less spacing potential (e.g., crammed their study time or studied less consistently) would perform worse, especially on long-term tests (final exam and course posttest), than students with more spacing potential.
• Students would report at least some distraction during their studying, but those who reported being distracted for a smaller percent of their study time would score higher on exams than students who reported being distracted for a larger percent of their study time.

Context and Participants

Data for this study were gathered from a large-enrollment introductory biology course (total class size was 623) during the Spring 2019 semester at a selective, private institution in the Midwest. This course covers basic biochemistry and molecular genetics. It is the first semester of a two-semester sequence. Students who take this course are generally interested in life science majors and/or have pre-health intentions. The data for this study came from an on-campus repository; both the repository and this study have been approved by our internal review board (IRB ID: 201810007 for this study; IRB ID: 201408004 for the repository). There were no exclusion criteria for the study. Anyone who gave consent and for whom all variables were available was considered for the analyses. However, because the variables were different in each analysis, the sample differed slightly from analysis to analysis. When we compared students who were included in the first hypothesis’s analyses to students who gave consent but were not included, we found no significant differences between participants and nonparticipants for ACT math score, pretest score, year in school, sex, or race (Supplemental Table 1). This suggested that our sample did not dramatically differ from the class as a whole.

Other than those analyses labeled “post hoc,” analyses were preplanned before data were retrieved.

Timeline of Assignments Used in This Study

Figure 1 shows a timeline of the assignments analyzed in this study, which included the exam 1 and 2 reflections (both online), exams 1 and 2 (both in person), the course pre and post knowledge tests (both online), and a cumulative final exam (in person). As shown in the text boxes within Figure 1 , the majority (85.7% [430/502] or greater) of students completed each of the assignments that were used in this study.

Timeline of assignments used in this study organized by mode of submission (online vs. in person) and grading (completion vs. accuracy). Exam days are indicated by thick lines. There were other course assignments (including a third exam), but they are not depicted here, because they were not analyzed in this study. Exam return is indicated by dotted lines. Light gray boxes represent weeks that class was in session. The number of consenting students who completed each assignment is indicated in the corresponding assignment box; the total number of consenting students was 502.

Exam Reflections

Students’ responses to exam 1 and 2 study habits reflections were central to all of our hypotheses. In these reflection assignments, students were asked to indicate their study habits leading up to the exam (see Supplemental Item 1 for prompts), including the timing of studying and type of study strategies. The list of strategies for students to choose from came from preliminary analysis of open-response questions in previous years. To increase the likelihood that students accurately remembered their study habits, we made the exercise available online immediately after each exam for 5 days. The reflection assignment was completed before exam grades were returned to students so that their performance did not bias their memory of studying. Students received 0.20% of the total course points for completion of each reflection.

Exams in this course contained both structured-response (multiple-choice, matching, etc.) and free-response questions. The exams were given in person and contained a mixture of lower-order cognitive level (i.e., recall and comprehension) and higher-order cognitive level (i.e., application, analysis, synthesis, or evaluation) questions. Two independent (A.B and G. Y.) raters qualitatively coded exam questions by cognitive level using a rubric slightly modified from Crowe et al. (2008) to bin lower-order and higher-order level questions. This revealed that 38% of exam points were derived from higher-order questions. Each in-term exam was worth 22.5% of the course grade, and the cumulative final exam was worth 25% of the course grade. To prepare for the exams, students were assigned weekly quizzes and were given opportunities for optional practice quizzing and in-class clicker questions as formative assessment. Students were also provided with weekly learning objectives and access to the previous year’s exams. None of the exam questions were identical to questions presented previously in problem sets, old exams, or quizzes. Additionally, in the first week of class, students were given a handout about effective study strategies that included a list of active study techniques along with content-specific examples. Further, on the first quiz, students were asked to determine the most active way to use a particular resource from a list of options. The mean and SD of these exams, and all other variables used in this analysis, can be found in Supplemental Table 2. Pairwise correlations for all variables can be found in Supplemental Table 3

Pre and Post Knowledge Test

As described previously ( Walck-Shannon et al. , 2019 ), the pre/posttest is a multiple-choice test that had been developed by the instructor team. The test contained 38 questions, but the percentage of questions correct is reported here for ease of interpretation. The same test was given online in the first week of classes and after class sessions had ended. One percent extra credit was given to students who completed both tests. To encourage students to participate fully, we presented the pre and posttests as learning opportunities in the course to foreshadow topics for the course (pretest) or review topics for the final (posttest). Additionally, we told students that “reasonable effort” was required for credit. Expressing this rationale seemed to be effective for participation rates. While others have found that participation is low when extra credit is offered as an incentive (38%, Padilla-Walker et al. , 2005 ), we found participation rates for the pre- and posttests to be high; 97.4% of students completed the pretest and 85.9% of students completed the posttest.

Statistical Analyses

To test our three hypotheses, we used hierarchical regression. We controlled for potential confounding variables in step 1 and factored in the study variable of interest at step 2 for each model. We performed the following steps to check that the assumptions of linear regression were met for each model: first, we made scatter plots and found that the relationship was roughly linear, rather than curved; second, we plotted the histogram of residuals and found that they were normally distributed and centered around zero; and finally, we checked for multicollinearity by verifying that no two variables in the model were highly correlated (greater than 0.8). All statistical analyses were performed in JMP Pro (SAS Institute).

Base Model Selection

The purpose of the base model was to account for potential confounding variables. Thus, we included variables that we theoretically expected to explain some variance in exam performance based on previous studies. First, based on a meta-analysis ( Westrick et al. , 2015 ) and our own previous study with a different cohort in this same course ( Walck-Shannon et al. , 2019 ), we expected academic preparation to predict performance. Therefore, we included ACT math and biology pretest scores in our base model. Second, the negative relationship between self-reported class absences and exam or course performance is well documented ( Gump, 2005 ; Lin and Chen, 2006 ; Credé et al. , 2010 ). Therefore, we included the number of class sessions missed in our base model. Finally, our research questions focus on how students use their study time, rather than the relationship between study time itself and performance. Because others have found a small but significant relationship between total study time and performance ( Credé and Kuncel, 2008 ), we controlled for the total number of hours spent studying in our base model. In summary, theoretical considerations of confounds prompted us to include ACT math score, biology pretest score, self-reported class absences, and self-reported exam study time as the base for each model.

Calculated Indices

In the following sections we provide descriptions of variables that were calculated from the reported data. If variables were used directly as input by the student (e.g., class absences, percent of study time distracted) or directly as reported by the registrar (e.g., ACT score), they are not listed below.

Total Exam Study Time.

In students’ exam reflections, they were asked to report both the number of hours that they studied each day in the week leading up to the exam and any hours that they spent studying more than 1 week ahead of the exam. The total exam study time was the sum of these study hours.

Number of Active Strategies Used.

To determine the number of active strategies used, we first had to define which strategies were active. To do so, all authors reviewed literature about desirable difficulties and effective study strategies (also reviewed in Bjork and Bjork, 2011 , and Dunlosky et al. , 2013 , respectively). Then, each author categorized the strategies independently. Finally, we met to discuss until agreement was reached. The resulting categorizations are given in Table 1 . Students who selected “other” and wrote a text description were recoded into existing categories. After the coding was in place, we summed the number of active strategies that each student reported to yield the number of active strategies variable.

Specific study strategy prompts from exam reflections, listed in prevalence of use for exam 1 a

a The classification of the strategy into active and passive is stated in “type.” Prevalences for exam 1 ( n = 424) and exam 2 ( n = 471) are reported.

Proportion of Study Time Using Active Strategies.

In addition to asking students which strategies they used, we also asked them to estimate the percentage of their study time they spent using each strategy. To calculate the proportion of study time using active strategies, we summed the percentages of time using each of the active strategies, then divided by the sum of the percentages for all strategies. For most students (90.0% for exam 1 and 92.8% for exam 2), the sum of all percentages was 100%. However, there were some students whose reported percentages did not add to 100%. If the summed percentages added to between 90 and 110%, they were still included in analyses. If, for example, the sum of all percentages was 90%, and 40% of that was using active strategies, this would become 0.44 (40/90). If the summed percentages were lower than 90% or higher than 110%, students were excluded from the analyses involving the proportion of active study time index.

Number of Days in Advance Studying Began.

In the exam 2 reflection, we asked students to report: 1) their study hours in the week leading up to the exam; and 2) if they began before this time, the total number of hours and date that they began studying. If students did not report any study hours earlier than the week leading up to the exam, we used their first reported study hour as the first day of study. If students did report study time before the week before the exam, we used the reported date that studying began as the first day of study. To get the number of days in advance variable, we counted the number of days between the first day of study and the day of the exam. If a student began studying on exam day, this would be recorded as 0. All students reported some amount of studying.

Number of Days Studied in Week Leading Up to the Exam.

As a measure of studying consistency, we counted the number of days that each student reported studying in the week leading up to exam 2. More specifically, the number of days with nonzero reported study hours were summed to give the number of days studied.

The study strategies that students selected, the timing with which they implemented those strategies, and the level of distraction they reported while doing so are described below. We depict the frequencies with which certain study variables were reported and correlate those study variables to exam 1 and exam 2 scores. For all performance analyses described in the Results section, we first controlled for a base model described below.

We attempted to control for some confounding variables using a base model, which included preparation (ACT math and course pretest percentage), self-reported class absences, and self-reported total study hours. For each analysis, we included all consenting individuals who responded to the relevant reflection questions for the model. Thus, the sample size and values for the variables in the base model differed slightly from analysis to analysis. For brevity, only the first base model is reported in the main text; the other base models included the same variables and are reported in Supplemental Tables 5A, 7A, and 8A.

The base model significantly predicted exam 1 score and exam 2 score for all analyses. Table 2 shows these results for the first analysis; exam 1: R 2 = 0.327, F (4, 419) = 51.010, p < 0.0001; exam 2: R 2 = 0.219, F(4, 466) = 32.751, p < 0.0001. As expected, all individual predictor terms were significant for both exams, with preparation and study time variables positively associated and absences negatively associated. For means and SDs of all continuous variables in this study, see Supplemental Table 2. We found that the preparatory variables were the most predictive, with the course pretest being more predictive than ACT math score. Total study time and class absences were predictive of performance to a similar degree. In summary, our base model accounted for a substantial proportion (32.7%) of the variance due to preparation, class absences, and study time, which allowed us to interpret the relationship between particular study habits and performance more directly.

Base model for hierarchical regression analyses in Table 3 for exam 1 ( n = 424) and exam 2 ( n = 471) a

Did Students Who Used More Active Study Strategies Perform Better on Exams?

We first investigated the specific study strategies listed in Table 1 . Then, we examined the total amount of time spent on active strategies to test our hypothesis that students who spent more time actively studying performed better on exams. Further, we counted the number of different types of active strategies that students used to test whether students who used a more diverse set of active strategies performed better on exams than those who used fewer active strategies.

Study Strategies Differed in Their Frequency of Use and Effectiveness.

The frequency with which specific study strategies were employed is reported in Table 1 . Almost all students reported reading notes. The next most prevalent strategies were active in nature, including that students (in order of prevalence) completed problem sets, completed old exams, self-quizzed, synthesized notes, explained concepts, and made diagrams. Surprisingly, each of these active strategies was used by the majority of students (54.7–86.1%) for both exams 1 and 2 ( Table 1 ). Less frequently used strategies included those more passive in nature, including that students (in order of prevalence) watched lectures, reviewed online content, read the textbook, and rewrote notes. A relatively infrequent strategy was attending review sessions, office hours, and help sessions. Because student engagement varied dramatically in these different venues, we classified this category as mixed. In summary, our results showed that, after reading notes, the most frequently used strategies were active strategies.

Next, we wondered whether the types of strategies that students reported using were related to exam performance. For these analyses, we added whether a student used a specific strategy (0 or 1) into the model, after controlling for the base model reported in Table 2 . When holding preparation, class absences, and total study time equal, we found that, on average, students who reported having completed problem sets, explained concepts, self-quizzed, or attended review sessions earned 4.0–7.7% higher on average on both exams 1 and 2 than students who did not report using the strategy (see b unstd. in Table 3 ). Notably, these strategies were active in nature, except for the category attending review session, which was mixed in nature. The remaining active strategies were positively correlated to performance for only one of the exams. Additionally, we observed that the strategies categorized as passive were either nonsignificant or negatively related to performance on at least one exam. Together, these results suggest that active strategies tended to be positively related to exam performance. In our sample, each of these active strategies was used by the majority (more than half) of the students.

Relating specific study strategy use to performance on exam 1 ( n = 424) and exam 2 ( n = 471) when controlling for preparation, class absences, and total study hours (base model) a

The Proportion of Time Spent Using Active Strategies Positively Predicted Exam Score.

To further understand how active strategies related to performance, we investigated the proportion of study time that students spent using active strategies. On average, students spent about half of their study time using active strategies for exam 1 (M = 0.524, SD = 0.244) and exam 2 (M = 0.548, SD = 0.243), though values varied from 0 to 1 ( Figure 2 ). Importantly, students who spent a larger proportion of their study time on active strategies tended to perform better on exams 1 and 2. More specifically, after accounting for our base model (Supplemental Table 5A), the proportion of time students spent using active strategies added significant additional predictive value for exam 1, F (1, 416) = 8.770, p = 0.003, Δ R 2 = 0.014; and exam 2, F (1, 450) = 14.848, p = 0.0001, Δ R 2 = 0.024. When holding preparation, class absences, and total study time equal, we found that students who spent all of their study time on active strategies scored 5.5% higher and 10.0% higher on exams 1 and 2, respectively, than those who spent none of their study time on active strategies ( Table 4 ). Overall, these two results suggested that, on average, students spent about half of their study time using active strategies and students who devoted more study time to active strategies tended to perform better on exams.

Distribution of the proportion of time that students devoted to active study for exam 1 ( n = 422) and exam 2 ( n = 456). Percentages of students in each bin are indicated.

Relating active study strategy use to performance on exam 1 ( n = 422) and exam 2 ( n = 456) when controlling for preparation, class absences, and total study hours (base model) a

The Number of Active Strategies Used Positively Predicted Exam Score.

We next investigated the number of active strategies used by each student. On average, students used approximately four active strategies for exam 1 (M = 4.212, SD = 1.510) and exam 2 (M = 4.239, SD = 1.501). Very few students used no active strategies and most students (73%) used four or more active strategies ( Figure 3 ). Further, those students who used more active strategies tended to perform higher on exams 1 and 2. More specifically, after accounting for our base model, the number of active strategies students used added significant additional predictive value for exam 1, ( F (1, 416) = 33.698, p < 0.0001 Δ R 2 = 0.024; and exam 2, F (1, 450) = 91.083, p < 0.0001, Δ R 2 = 0.066. When holding preparation, class absences, and total study time equal, we found that, for each additional active strategy used, students scored 1.9% and 2.8% higher on exams 1 and 2, respectively. Students who used all six active strategies scored 11.1% higher and 16.6% higher on exams 1 and 2, respectively, than those who used no active strategies ( Table 4 , See Supplemental Table 5A for base model). In summary, students who used a greater diversity of active strategies tended to perform better on exams.

Distribution of the number of active strategies that each student used for exam 1 ( n = 422) and exam 2 ( n = 456). Percentages of students in each bin are indicated.

Post Hoc Analysis 1: Are Certain Active Strategies Uniquely Predictive of Performance?

Though it was not part of our planned analyses, the previous finding that the number of active strategies is predictive of performance made us question whether certain active strategies are uniquely predictive or whether they each have overlapping benefits. To test this, we added all six of the active strategies into the model as separate variables in the same step. When doing so, we found that the following active strategies were distinctly predictive for both exams 1 and 2: explaining concepts, self-quizzing, and completing problem sets (Supplemental Table 6). In other words, the portion of exam-score variance explained by certain active strategies was non-overlapping.

Did Study Timing Predict Performance on Immediate or Delayed Exams?

We next characterized students’ spacing potential using two indices: 1) the number of days in advance that studying began (cramming) and 2) the number of days in the week leading up to the exam that a student studied (consistency). Notably, in these results, we adjusted for our base model, which included total study time. In this way, we addressed the timing of studying while holding the total amount of studying equal. We examined outcomes at two different times: exam 2, which came close after studying; and the cumulative final exam and the posttest, which came after about a 5-week delay.

Cramming Was Not a Significant Predictor of Exam 2, the Final Exam, or the Posttest.

While there was variation in the degree of cramming among students, this was not predictive of exam score on either immediate or delayed tests. On average, students began studying 5.842 d in advance of exam 2 (SD = 4.377). About a third of students began studying 0–3 days before the exam, and another third began studying 4–6 days before the exam ( Figure 4 A). When holding preparation, class absences, and total study time equal, we found that the number of days in advance that studying began was not a significant predictor of in-term exam 2, the posttest, or the cumulative final ( Table 5 ; see Supplemental Table 7A for base model).

Distributions of spacing potential variables for exam 2 ( n = 450). (A) The distribution of the days in advance that exam 2 studying began (cramming); (B) the distribution of the number of days studied in the week before exam 2 (consistency). Percentages of students in each bin are indicated.

Relating spacing potential to performance on in-term exam 2 ( n = 447), the posttest ( n = 392), and the cumulative final exam ( n = 450) when controlling for preparation, class absences, and total study hours (base model) a

Studying Consistency Was Not a Significant Predictor of Exam 2, the Final Exam, or the Posttest.

While there was variation in how consistently students studied in the week leading up to exam 2, this consistency was not predictive of exam score either immediately or on delayed tests. On average, students studied 5 of the 8 days leading up to the exam (M = 5.082, SD = 1.810 ). Sixteen percent of students studied every day, and no students studied fewer than 2 days in the week leading up to the exam ( Figure 4 B). When holding preparation, class absences, and total study time equal, we found that the number of days studied in the week leading up to the exam was not a significant predictor of in-term exam 2, the posttest, or the cumulative final ( Table 5 ; see Supplemental Table 7A for base model).

In summary, our students varied in both the degree of cramming and the consistency of their studying. Even so, when holding preparation, class absences, and study time equal as part of our base model, neither of these spacing potential measures were predictive of performance on immediate or delayed tests.

Did Students Who Reported Being Less Distracted while Studying Perform Better on Exams?

In addition to the timing of studying, another factor that contextualizes the study strategies is how focused students are during study sessions. In the exam reflections, we asked students how distracted they were while studying. Here, we relate those estimates to exam scores while controlling for our base model of preparation, class absences, and total study time.

Distraction while Studying Was a Negative Predictor of Exam Score.

On average, students reported being distracted during 20% of their exam 1 and exam 2 study time (exam 1: M = 20.733, SD = 16.478; exam 2: M = 20.239, SD = 15.506) . Sixty-one percent of students reported being distracted during more than 10% of their study time ( Figure 5 ). Further, students who were more distracted while studying tended to perform lower on exams 1 and 2. After accounting for our base model, the percent of study time that students reported being distracted added significant additional predictive value for exam 1 and exam 2; exam 1: F (1, 429) = 12.365, p = 0.000, Δ R 2 = 0.019; exam 2: F (1, 467) = 8.942, p = 0.003, Δ R 2 = 0.015. When holding preparation, class absences, and total study time equal, we found that students who reported being distracted 10% more than other students scored about 1% lower on exams 1 and 2 ( Table 6 ; see Supplemental Table 8A for base model). In summary, this suggests that not only was it common for students to be distracted while studying, but this was also negatively related to exam performance.

Distribution of the percent of time students reported being distracted while studying for exam 1 ( n = 435) and exam 2 ( n = 473). Percentages of students in each bin are indicated.

Relating study distraction to performance on exam 1 ( n = 435) and exam 2 ( n = 473) when controlling for preparation, class absences, and total study hours (base model) a

Students’ independent study behaviors are an important part of their learning in college courses. When holding preparation, class absences, and total study time equal, we found that students who spent more time on effortful, active study strategies and used a greater number of active strategies had higher scores for exams. Yet neither students who started studying earlier nor those who studied over more sessions scored differently than students who started later or studied over fewer sessions. Additionally, students who were more distracted while studying tended to perform worse than students who were less distracted. In other words, both the degree to which students employed desirably difficult strategies while studying and their level of focus when doing so were important for performance.

Specific Study Strategies (Hypothesis 1)

Our finding that more time and diversity of active study strategies were associated with higher exam grades was consistent with our hypothesis based on the desirable difficulties framework, laboratory, and classroom research studies ( Berry, 1983 ; King, 1992 ; Bjork, 1994 ; Karpicke and Roediger, 2008 ; Karpicke and Blunt, 2011 ; Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012 ). Our study brought together lab research about effective strategies with what students did during self-directed study in an actual course. In doing so, we affirmed the lab findings that active strategies are generally effective, but also uncovered further nuances that highlight the value of investigating course-specific study strategies.

First, our study, when combined with other work, may have revealed that certain study strategies are more common than course-nonspecific surveys would predict. For example, compared with surveys of general study habits, our students reported relatively high use of active strategies. We found that the majority of students (73%) reported using four or more active strategies, which was more than the 2.9 average total strategies listed by students in a survey about general study habits at this same institution ( Karpicke et al. , 2009 ). In particular, we found that two-thirds of students reported the active study strategy of self-quizzing. This was considerably higher than what was found in a free-response survey about general habits not focused on a specific course at the same institution ( Karpicke et al. , 2009 ). In this survey, only 10.7% reported self-testing and 40.1% reported using flashcards. This higher frequency of self-quizzing behaviors may be due to a combination of factors in the course, the measures, and/or the students. In this course, we attempted to make self-quizzing easier by reopening the weekly quiz questions near exam time ( Walck-Shannon et al. , 2019 ). We also used a course-specific survey rather than the more general, course-nonspecific surveys used in the previous research. Additionally, it is possible that, in recent years, more students have become more aware of the benefits of self-testing and so are using this strategy with greater frequency. When we compared our frequencies of several categories to analogous categories from course-specific surveys of introductory biology students ( Sebesta and Bray Speth, 2017 ) and molecular biology students ( Rodriguez et al. , 2018 ), we saw similar results. Combined with our work, these studies suggest that when students focused on a particular course, they reported more active strategies than when prompted about studying in general.

Second, the opportunity to control for potential confounding variables in our study, including total study time, allowed us to better estimate the relationships between specific strategies and performance. This approach was important, given concerns raised by others that in classroom studies, benefits of certain strategies, such as explanation, could simply have been due to greater total study time ( Dunlosky et al. , 2013 ). Our results showed that, even when controlling for total study time, self-explanation and other strategies were still significant predictors of performance. This helped illustrate that the strategies themselves, and not just the time on task, were important considerations of students’ study habits.

Third, we were surprised by how predictive the diversity of active strategies was of performance. While we found that the proportion of active study time and the number of active strategies were both important predictors of performance, we found that the latter was a stronger predictor. This suggests that, if total study time was held equal, students who used a larger number of active strategies tended to perform better than those that used a smaller number of active strategies. This finding also deserves to be followed up in subsequent study to determine whether any of the active strategies that students use tend to co-occur in a “suite,” and whether any of those suites are particularly predictive of performance. We suspect that there is some limit to the benefit of using diverse strategies, as some strategies take a considerable amount of time to master ( Bean and Steenwyk, 1984 ; Armbruster et al. , 1987 ; Wong et al. , 2002 ), and students need to devote enough time to each strategy to learn how to use it well.

Additionally, we found that particular active study strategies—explanation, self-quizzing, and answering problem sets—were uniquely predictive of higher performance in a biology course context. Undergraduate biology courses introduce a large amount of discipline-specific terminology, in addition to requiring the higher-order prediction and application skills found among STEM courses ( Wandersee, 1988 ; Zukswert et al. , 2019 ). This is true for the course studied here, which covers biochemistry and molecular genetics, and the assessments that we used as our outcomes reflect this combination of terminology, comprehension, prediction, and application skills. Our results support the finding that active, effortful strategies can be effective on a variety of cognitive levels ( Butler, 2010 ; Karpicke and Blunt, 2011 ; Smith and Karpicke, 2014 ); and this work extends support of the desirable difficulties framework into biology by finding unique value for distinct generative or testing strategies.

Study Timing (Hypothesis 2)

Inconsistent with our second hypothesis that students with less spacing potential would perform worse than students with more spacing potential, we found no relationship between study timing and performance on in-term or cumulative exams. Because we knew that spacing was difficult to estimate, we analyzed two spacing potential indices, the degree of cramming (i.e., the number of days in advance that students started studying) and the consistency of studying (i.e., the number of days studied in the week leading up to the exam). We controlled for total study time, because the spacing effect is defined as identical study time spread over multiple sessions rather than fewer, massed sessions. When doing so, neither of these measures were significantly related to performance.

There are a few possible explanations why we may not have observed a “spacing effect.” First, as explained in the Introduction , we measured spacing potential. It could be that students with high spacing potential may have arranged their studies to mass studying each topic, rather than spacing it out, which would lead us to underestimate the spacing effect. Second, students likely studied again before our cumulative final. This delayed test is where we expected to see the largest effect, and restudying may have masked any spacing effect that did exist. Third, we asked students to directly report their study time, and some may have struggled to remember the exact dates that they studied. While this has the advantage that it results in more sensitive and direct measures of students’ spacing potential than asking students to interpret for themselves whether they binarily spaced their studies or crammed ( Hartwig and Dunlosky, 2012 ; Rodriguez et al. , 2018 ), students who did not remember their study schedules may have reported idealized study schedules with greater spacing, rather than realistic schedules with more cramming ( Susser and McCabe, 2013 ), thus minimizing the expected spacing effect.

Despite the lack of a spacing effect in our data, we certainly do not advocate that students cram their studying, as we find it likely that students who started studying earlier may also have tended to study more. Also, those same students who studied earlier may have felt less stressed and gotten more sleep. In other words, even though our estimation of spacing potential did not capture performance benefits, benefits of spacing for well-being may be multifaceted and not wholly captured by our study.

Distraction (Hypothesis 3)

Consistent with our third hypothesis, we found a negative relationship between distraction while studying and performance. This finding agreed with the few available studies that related distraction during self-directed out-of-class studying and grade, but differs in that our students reported a lower level of distraction than other published studies ( Junco, 2012 ; Junco and Cotten, 2012 ). One possible reason for our low distraction estimate may have been that students were inadvertently underestimating their distraction, as has been reported ( Kraushaar and Novak, 2010 ). In addition, some students may not have been including multitasking as a type of distraction, and this habit of multitasking while studying will likely be difficult to change, as students tend to underestimate how negatively it will affect performance ( Calderwood et al. , 2016 ).

Implications for Instruction

How can we leverage these results to help students change their habits? We present a few ideas of course structural changes that follow from some of the results from this study:

• To encourage students to use more active study strategies, try asking students to turn in the output of the strategy as a low-stakes assignment. For example, to encourage self-explanation, you could ask students to turn in a short video of themselves verbally explaining a concept for credit. To encourage practice quizzing, try to publish or reopen quizzes near exam time ( Walck-Shannon et al. , 2019 ) and ask students to complete them for credit.
• To encourage students to use active study strategies effectively, model those strategies during class. For example, when doing a clicker question, explicitly state your approach to answering the question and self-explain your reasoning out loud. This also gives you an opportunity to add the rationale for why certain strategies are effective or provide advice about carrying them out. In addition to modeling a strategy, remind students to do it often. Simply prompting students to explain their reasoning to their neighbors or themselves during a clicker question helps shifts students’ conversations toward explanation ( Knight et al. , 2013 ).
• To encourage students to stay focused during studying, provide voluntary, structured study sessions. These could include highly structured peer-led team-learning sessions during which students work through a packet of new questions ( Hockings et al. , 2008 ; Snyder et al. , 2015 ) or more relaxed sessions during which students work through problems that have already been provided ( Kudish et al. , 2016 ).

Limitations and Future Directions

There are multiple caveats to these analyses, which may be addressed in future studies. First, our data about study behaviors were self-reported. While we opened the reflection exercise immediately after the exam to mitigate students forgetting their behaviors, some may still have misremembered. Further, some students may not have forgotten, but rather were unable to accurately self-report certain behaviors. As stated earlier, one behavior that is especially prone to this is distraction. But, similarly, we suspect that some students had trouble estimating the percent of study time that they spent using each strategy, while their binary report of whether they used it or not may be more accurate. This may be one reason why the number of active strategies has more explanatory power than the percent of time using an active strategy. Separately, although students were told that we would not analyze their responses until after the semester had ended, some may have conformed their responses to what they thought was desirable. However, there is not strong evidence that students conform their study habit responses to their beliefs about what is effective. For example, Blasiman and colleagues found that, even though students believed rereading was an ineffective strategy, they still reported using it more than other strategies ( Blasiman et al. , 2017 ). Another limitation due to self-reporting is that we lack knowledge of the exact, nuanced behaviors that a student carried out. Thus, a student who chose a strategy that we defined as active—such as “completing problem sets”—may have actually performed more passive behaviors. Specifically, while we did use verbal reminders and delay the release of a key when encouraging students to complete the problem sets and old exams before looking at the answers, some students may have looked up answers prematurely or may have read passively through portions of the key. These more passive behaviors may have underestimated the importance of active strategies. A second limitation is that these data were collected from a course at a selective research-intensive institution and may not be applicable to all student populations. A third limitation is that our analyses are correlational. While we have carefully selected potential confounds, there may be other important confounding variables that we did not account for. Finally, it was beyond the scope of this study to ask whether certain subgroups of students employed different strategies or whether strategies were more or less predictive of performance for different subgroups of students.

Despite these caveats, the main point is clear. Students’ course-specific study habits predict their performance. While many students in our sample reported using effective strategies, some students still had room to improve, especially with their level of distraction. One open question that remains is how we can encourage these students to change their study habits over time.

Supplementary Material

Acknowledgments.

We would like to thank April Bednarski, Kathleen Weston-Hafer, and Barbara Kunkel for their flexibility and feedback on the exam reflection exercises. We would also like to acknowledge Grace Yuan and Ashton Barber for their assistance categorizing exam questions. This research was supported in part by an internal grant titled “Transformational Initiative for Educators in STEM,” which aimed to foster the adoption of evidence-based teaching practices in science classrooms at Washington University in St. Louis.

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Updated on April 9, 2024

Create Good Habits for CEBS® Success

by Christine Vazquez, CEBS

Three Tips to Study Smarter

It’s important to be able to keep track of all the legislation that has shaped benefit plans. Here are some tips for creating a timeline to help you retain this information for your Certified Employee Benefit Specialist ® (CEBS) exam .

1. Draw a box for each piece of legislation that has been enacted.  Write the name of the law and the year it was passed inside the box.

2. Above each box, take note of the legal and economic climate at the time each law was passed.  Why was the law enacted?  What was happening in the benefits industry at that time?

3. Add several bullet points under each box describing the effect of the legal change.

Check out additional study tips from CEBS grads in the video below!

Do you need guidance on your CEBS journey? Whether you’re about to take your first step or getting close to earning your designation, we’re here to help! For assistance with the U.S. curriculum, give us a call at (800) 449-2327, option 3, or email  [email protected] . To learn more about the Canadian curriculum, contact us at (833) 886-3749 or [email protected] .

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ORIGINAL RESEARCH article

Analysis of the influence of educational level on the nutritional status and lifestyle habits of the young spanish population.

• 1 Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Valencia, Spain
• 2 Doctoral School, Catholic University of Valencia San Vicente Mártir, Valencia, Spain
• 3 Embedded Systems and Artificial Intelligence Group, Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU, CEU Universities, Valencia, Spain
• 4 Degree in Data Science, Polytechnical University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
• 5 Department of Mathematics, Physics and Technological Sciences, Universidad Cardenal Herrera-CEU, CEU Universities, Valencia, Spain

Aim: This study aims to analyze some nutrition and health habits of young people and the impact of educational attainment on health.

Methods: An observational, descriptive, and cross-sectional study was carried out using surveys. Using non-probabilistic snowball sampling, a previously validated questionnaire was disseminated through networks, collecting a sample of 9,681 people between 18 and 30  years old. Comparative analyses between groups were obtained by clustering and the corresponding statistical tests.

Results: The results showed how young people with higher education generally have a lower BMI, a higher healthy nutrition index, less frequent consumption of sugary drinks, and less smoking than their peers with basic education. These healthier habits are reflected in the higher self-perceived health status of the higher-educated group. While for all the educational levels analyzed, the minutes of physical activity practice are above the 150 min recommended by the WHO.

Conclusion: Our findings suggest that young people’s education level is of fundamental importance for health, particularly for nutritional habits. In general, the lifestyle habits of the young Spanish population are healthy, but there is a need for improvement in those aspects related to nutrition and food.

1 Introduction

Habits can be defined as the frequent repetition of meaningful action patterns in a stable environment ( 1 ). They can be learned through “habit learning” or can also be shared and institutionalized in the form of rituals ( 2 ). Habits can change due to alterations in our environment, which can lead to the formation of new habits. Psychosocial factors such as self-efficacy, intrinsic motivation, social support, and extrinsic motivation may also influence the formation of new habits ( 3 ).

At the age at which the individual grows and forms, childhood, and adolescence are considered fundamental stages of maturing ( 4 ). However, there is another period in a person’s life of great importance in the development of routines and behavioral habits that will later affect the health and well-being of the individual, and that is the period of youth. This period coincides with significant changes: leaving the family home to live more independently ( 5 ), a change of schedule that in many cases leads to a reduction in physical activity ( 6 ) or the creation of new friendships and, with it, often new fun routines ( 7 ).

In 1985, the United Nations General Assembly set the age range of youth to be 15 to 24 years. In the last 35 years, society has changed considerably. The quality of life in industrialized countries has increased, as has life expectancy, and these limits have lengthened ( 8 ). In fact, according to the 2016 Report on Youth in Spain ( 9 ), a young person is considered to be a young person up to 30, while the Spanish National Institute of Statistics sets this limit between the ages of 15 and 29 inclusive.

The habits that are acquired during youth can have a significant impact on adult behavior. Habits can become automatic and routine and can be influenced by personality traits such as impulsivity and compulsivity ( 1 ). A study found that social media habits among youth can impact their social capital ( 10 ). Health-related lifestyles acquired during youth can affect a person’s health in the long term ( 11 ). Furthermore, sedentary behavior among children and youth can lead to prolonged sitting hours and excessive screen-based sedentary time, which can carry into adulthood ( 12 ). Habits can also be taught through example and training, and educators play a crucial role in this field.

Eating and nutritional habits are among the most important due to their direct impact on health. An incorrect diet can lead to the appearance of a whole series of diseases, even serious ones, such as obesity ( 13 ) and cardiovascular diseases ( 14 ), among others.

A recent systematic review of young people’s dietary habits found very varied results, pointing to the complexity and difficulty of studying the dietary habits of a population ( 15 ). The analyzed articles found that young people generally show poor adherence to the Mediterranean diet, consume fruit and vegetables below the dietary recommendations, and ingest unhealthy foods such as fried, ultra-processed, or fast food more frequently than recommended ( 16 – 19 ). The review also pointed to a vast difference between studies regarding other habits such as the number of meals per day, frequency, and type of breakfast or eating with the family ( 20 – 22 ).

Another review ( 23 ), which also studied adolescents’ nutritional and sustainability habits, focused more on analyzing the type of instrument used to record and study these habits. The authors found the use of well over 64 instruments to measure dietary habits, 14 different ones centered only on measuring adherence to the Mediterranean diet. This wide variety of instruments and methods is perhaps why finding a common and agreed explanation for the variability of results obtained on nutrition and health habits even within the same country is still challenging.

Given the importance of acquiring balanced and healthy nutrition and lifestyle habits in youth and maintaining them throughout life, it is crucial to investigate the factors that may influence these habits to intervene where possible.

One factor that seems to have a significant influence is the level of education and training, suggesting that people with more education may be more critical of advertising and food industry trends ( 24 , 25 ) or better able to understand and evaluate nutritional information on food labels ( 26 , 27 ). This knowledge might help them to make healthier choices when purchasing and consuming certain foods or products.

A correct choice of food is perhaps the differential element for adequate nutrition in a country like Spain, where both the availability and affordability of food and its general safety are already good. The Global Food Security Index 2022 ( 28 ), which analyses food security around the world, highlighting future challenges for improvement and developing solutions, has placed Spain in the 20th position out of the 113 countries studied.

Moreover, people with higher education generally have greater access to educational resources, such as books, webinars, videos or podcasts on nutrition and health, which leads to greater knowledge and more reliable information in this field. Increased awareness of the importance of long-term health can motivate them to adopt healthier habits and make informed dietary and lifestyle choices based on evidence and scientific knowledge ( 29 , 30 ).

Augmented education and knowledge in nutrition and health can help to successfully address what the FAO, in its latest report on the state of food security and nutrition in the world in 2023 ( 31 ), defines as one of the most significant global challenges in nutrition. Ensuring that the increasing availability of 4 and 5th-range foods, primarily rich in fats, preservatives, additives, and other unhealthy substances, does not automatically lead to the assumption by consumers of a high-calorie diet that is poor in nutrients and vitamins and detrimental to their health.

The Spanish education system is currently regulated by the Organic Law 3/2000, which replaced the previous Organic Law on Education (LOMLOE) ( 32 ) and is divided into different educational stages.

It starts with primary education (between 6 and 12 years old), which is compulsory, and continues with secondary education, which is also compulsory (ESO, Educación Secundaria Obligatoria ), and consists of 4 years (between 12 and 16 years old). After the ESO stage, different educational stages begin, which are already optional and which students can choose if they wish. Bachillerato , or alternatively professional training (2 or 3 years), is the access route to a University Degree (usually 4 years) which can be complemented with a master’s degree. Finally, the highest university degree is the PhD, which generally focuses on pursuing a professional career in the academic world.

Therefore, this research aims to explore the influence of the young Spanish population’s education level on their nutrition and lifestyle habits. The study of this relationship will allow us to discover patterns and highlight possible specific areas for action in the field of public health to improve those habits or aspects that are found to be less healthy.

2 Materials and methods

2.1 type of study and sampling.

A cross-sectional study was conducted on the young Spanish population (18–30 years old) residing in Spain, excluding those persons with chronic diseases or temporary situations that could affect their diet.

2.2 Instrument

A self-developed questionnaire was developed and validated with the help of a pilot group of 52 persons and a nominal group of seven experts in the field of health. The expert group, composed of two psychologists, a nutritionist, a social educator, two family doctors, and a communication professional, approved the instrument’s final version after reviewing the questionnaire and the pilot group’s results.

The questionnaire, provided using Google Forms, was disseminated through social networks using a non-probabilistic snowball sampling. The main dissemination channel was Instagram, where the account “@elretonutricional” was created, from which various professionals, influencers, and people who supported the dissemination were contacted. The researchers’ networks were also used (LinkedIn, Twitter, WhatsApp, and Facebook), and emails were sent to different establishments throughout Spain, specifically selected for their heterogeneous public (pharmacies, tobacconists).

2.3 Variables

The questionnaire collects sociodemographic and anthropometric health variables: sex, age, place of birth and residence, job, level of studies, level of income and usual residence, weight, height, self-perceived degree of health, the presence of diseases that could modify the diet and the presence of symptoms of eating disorders. Additionally, it collects data related to nutritional habits and frequency of consumption of different foods, sedentary lifestyles, and the practice of physical activity. Finally, it focuses on health-related social habits such as sleep, smoking, and alcohol consumption.

Moreover, most of the variables were qualitative, with the possibility of choosing one of the multiple options: Sex (male or female), place of birth and residence, level of studies (all possible levels of studies in the Spanish education system), level of income (different salary steps) and all frequencies of food and drink consumption where one could choose between increasing frequency steps. The same was also valid for sedentary lifestyle, hours of sleep, and tobacco consumption, where one could choose between different categories. Nevertheless, to work with them quantitatively, the food habits and lifestyle variables were categorized on a Likert scale from 1 to 4 points, following the criteria indicated in Table 1 .

Table 1 . Categorization of beverage consumption variables and the health and lifestyle variables.

Other variables had a continuous quantitative value, such as age, weight, height, and minutes of exercise per week, and others had a discrete quantitative value in the Likert scale format, such as self-reported level of health.

The results of the food frequency variables were used to calculate the IASE (Healthy Eating Index for the Spanish population), which was calculated using a reduced version of the index validated by Norte and Ortiz ( 33 ). The index assigns a score of 10 to behavior that meets the recommendations proposed by the Spanish Society of Community Nutrition ( 34 ) (SENC). The maximum score of the index is 73. IASE distinguishes the degree of healthiness of eating habits in three categories: ‘Healthy’ to those values of the nutritional index between 58.4 and 73, the classification of ‘Needs changes’ to those between 36.5 and 58.4, and ‘Unhealthy’ to those below 36.5. Table 2 shows the categorization of variables used for the IASE.

Table 2 . Criteria used for the calculation of the IASE.

2.4 Data analysis

Concerning data preparation, the data from the questionnaires were collected and stored in a database designed specifically for this study, and then, it proceeded to check if there were any erroneous data as a result of data entry or if there were outliers. Thus, once the information was cleaned, the corresponding descriptive and inferential statistical analysis was carried out. From the final dataset, nine variables were selected because of their interest, such as Sex, Studies, BMI, IASE, Self-perceived health, Soft drinks, Sedentary lifestyle, Sport, and Smoking. Then, individuals with BMI < 14 and BMI > 40 were removed, as they were considered extreme values. Below, discrete variables are shown as absolute values and percentages, and continuous variables are shown as the mean and the standard deviation.

Furthermore, to determine the power of the study, this was carried through the G*Power program ( 35 ), performing a post-hoc analysis, with a significance level set at 0.001, and obtaining a maximum power, as the sample size is big enough.

To explore the normality of the data, the Lilliefors Test (Kolmogorov–Smirnov) was used with a significance level of 95%, and the test showed that data do not follow a normal distribution. Thus, the Kruskal-Wallis test (non-parametric version of ANOVA) was performed to compare whether there are differences between the 7 groups for the variable “Studies.”

Computing the effect size for the Kruskal-Wallis test as the eta squared based on the H-statistic allows us to obtain the percentage of variance in the numerical variables explained by Studies. The interpretation values commonly in published literature are 0.01–0.06 (small effect), 0.06–0.14 (moderate effect), and > = 0.14 (large effect) ( 36 ).

Notwithstanding, clustering techniques were studied to look for individuals segmented in groups within data. Clustering, in the context of data analysis, is a technique used to group similar objects or records into sets to discover patterns and underlying structures in the data. The goal is to have objects within the same group be more like each other than those in other groups. These groups, known as “clusters,” help simplify and comprehend the data. Thanks to the clustering technique, it is feasible to observe individuals from our sample “naturally” group in which manner and what the variables that discriminate better among them are ( 37 , 38 ).

When dealing with mixed data that includes variables of different types (quantitative or qualitative) ( 39 ), it is necessary to approach clustering in a specific manner. Thus, the optimal is to use the Gower distance, a metric that can handle mixed data by calculating distances between objects while considering the unique characteristics of each feature type.

On the other hand, the K-medoid method, which is outlier-resistant and can reduce the effect of outliers and noise in the data, was also considered. Noise in the data refers to any unwanted or irrelevant information or variability present within a dataset that does not represent meaningful patterns or essential information. This could include outliers (data that significantly differ from the rest of the observations in a dataset), errors, or random fluctuations that might obscure or distort the actual trends or relationships in the data.

The Silhouette Coefficient was calculated as a metric to select the number of components, discerning the advised number of clusters ( 40 ). The Silhouette Coefficient is a measure used to evaluate the quality of clustering. It quantifies how well-defined the clusters are in a dataset. It ranges from −1 to 1, where a higher value indicates that the clusters are well-separated. Meanwhile, a lower value suggests that the clusters may overlap or that data points have been assigned to incorrect clusters. The Silhouette Coefficient considers both the cohesion of individuals within clusters and the separation between clusters.

Then, to maximize the Silhouette Coefficient, 4 clusters were selected, with a 0.36 average Silhouette width, as seen in the plot in Figure 1 . All these methods were performed with RStudio 4.3.0 ( 39 ).

Figure 1 . Graphical representation of the Silhouette coefficient according to the number of clusters.

The final sample consisted of 9,681 valid surveys. Table 3 shows the sociodemographic characteristics of the sample. As observed, 81.05% of the respondents are female, while 18.95% are male. The majority of the sample (38.16%) has a degree, followed by 24.59% who have a master’s degree, 20.86% have a secondary education, 13.65% have a vocational education, only 0.14% (14 people) have no education, and 1.58% have only primary education, while 1.02% of young people have a doctorate degree. The BMI prevalence according to WHO ( 41 ) categories in our database is 6.88% Underweight, 70.72% Normal weight, 16.25% Pre-obesity, 4.67% Obesity class I, and 1.48% Obesity class II.

Table 3 . Sociodemographic characteristics of the sample.

Table 4 compares the behavior of nutrition and lifestyle variables concerning sex. For all variables, there are significant differences between the sexes. Men have a higher BMI than women and a higher IASE; they also have a higher level of self-perceived health, spend more hours sitting, and consume sugar-sweetened beverages more frequently. On the other hand, they smoke less and do more sport.

Table 4 . Comparison of nutrition and health habits differentiated by gender.

Table 5 represents the mean values and standard deviation of the health and habit variables concerning the different categories of the educational level of the respondents. BMI and IASE (Healthy Eating Index for the Spanish population) might be the most striking values. It can be observed how the mean Body Mass Index varies by almost 3 points between the subjects with no education (BMI = 25.14) and those with higher education, university, or master’s degree (BMI = 22.74).

Table 5 . Comparison of nutrition and health habits regarding the level of education.

The variations in IASE are also important, going from a minimum value of 46.23 for subjects with primary education to a maximum value of 55.44 for subjects with a doctorate. Although both values are in the IASE range where it is necessary to make changes in nutrition [36.5–58.4], this is a variation of more than 9 points on a scale where the maximum is 73. It is also possible to observe that people with the highest level of education are very close to the range of healthy nutrition habits.

To test for statistically significant differences between the values of the health and habits variables and the different levels of study, the Kruskal-Wallis test and the Wilcoxon test with Hochberg adjustment were performed to study in more detail among which groups the differences were found. For all variables, a significant p -value ( p -value <0.001) was encountered, indicating therefore the existence of significant differences in at least two different levels of education for all health and habit variables explored. For a more detailed view, the pairwise comparisons have been calculated in Appendix A .

For the clustering analysis, 4 clusters were chosen. The Silhouette Coefficient per cluster is 0.38 (Cluster 1), 0.39 (Cluster 2), 0.27 (Cluster 3), and 0.32 (Cluster 4). At first sight, it is impossible to appreciate a considerable misclassification of individuals. On the contrary, it is possible to observe that cluster 2 is the best-defined one (as it has the highest Silhouette Coefficient). On the contrary, cluster 3 is the worst-defined cluster, with more misclassified individuals. Figure 2 shows the distribution of the four resulting clusters, and it can be seen how the data have been grouped in a well-defined way in 4 different groups or patterns.

Figure 2 . Graphical representation of the distribution of subjects in each cluster.

Table 6 describes the structure of each cluster, indicating the mean and median obtained for each nutrition and habits variable explored and specifying the subjects who have fallen into each cluster according to their level of education.

Table 6 . Median and mean values of the variables in each cluster.

Cluster 1 comprises 2,430 subjects, most of whom have completed a master’s degree. No individuals have a bachelor’s degree, secondary education, or vocational training. Cluster 2 groups 3,706 subjects, and it is wholly constituted of people who studied for a bachelor’s degree. Cluster 3 ( n  = 1,419) is composed of people who studied professional training. Finally, Cluster 4 contains 2,126 subjects and is comprised of young people with secondary studies and no professional training, bachelor’s degree, or master’s degree.

4 Discussion

Firstly, Table 4 shows the comparison between the sexes. Men have a higher average BMI (24.08) than women (22.81), although in both groups, the average BMI is in the normal weight range. This data is in line with previous studies in the literature ( 42 , 43 ) and, given that it is observed that men dedicate almost twice as much time to physical activity as women (288 vs. 147 min a week), it could be due to a higher percentage of muscle mass in men compared to women.

From this result, it can be inferred that young women are very close to (or do in the case of high-intensity sport) the physical activity recommended by the WHO ( 41 ): 150 min per week of moderate-intensity sport or 75 min of high-intensity sport. Young men, on the other hand, far exceed this threshold. Given the proven wide-ranging benefits of physical activity ( 44 – 46 ), it is excellent news in terms of health to see young men devoting ample time to physical activity.

The higher frequency of physical activity in men than in women may partly explain men’s higher consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages. The practice of physical activity leads to increased sweating with a consequent need to rehydrate the body and replenish lost fluids and minerals ( 47 , 48 ). Although it may not be the healthiest way, many young men consume sugary drinks after sport.

Table 5 shows the means comparison of the variables between the different levels of education. As can be seen from the values obtained in such comparisons ( Appendix A ), people with secondary education have a significantly different BMI compared to those with higher education, and the same is observed for people with vocational training. A similar trend is found for the IASE value, which is significantly higher for people with doctoral, master’s, and bachelor’s degrees than those with less education. Also, sedentary behavior is higher for people with higher education than those with more basic education. Although it will be discussed later, this seems to indicate that the level of education influences the health habits of the population.

Table 6 shows the grouping into clusters, from which the groups are relatively homogeneous regarding the educational level of the subjects in each cluster. This again seems to indicate that the level of education of the individuals has some influence on their health and lifestyle habits, contributing to the fact that, in general, the health clusters are different.

The clustering technique has allowed us to find whether there are different patterns in the data that can group individuals according to a series of characteristics. As can be seen, the cluster generated from the variables of interest is made up of four different groups for their health patterns. Furthermore, the most curious thing is that these four groups practically correspond to four different levels of education. Although, there are indeed individuals who, despite having one level of education, have a different health pattern.

Curiously, the classes generated from health-related variables coincide closely with the different levels of education. Therefore, it is possible to see that the level of education seems to have a significant impact on health, and we observe that a higher level of education is directly related to healthier habits.

Furthermore, cluster 3 is the one that includes the subjects with the lowest level of education, given that it has grouped all the subjects with a level of vocational training and most of those with primary education. In this cluster, the BMI is the highest, standing close to the threshold of 25, where a person begins to be considered overweight ( 49 ). The healthy nutrition index IASE is also the lowest, differing by 4–5 points from the other clusters, indicating that the nutritional habits of these people are the least healthy. Also, other aspects related to health have more negative results. These subjects consume sugary drinks more frequently. The high consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages has been shown to be detrimental to health ( 50 , 51 ), and have a higher addition to tobacco.

On the other hand, concerning physical activity, the average time spent by the members of each cluster is similar. The only habit that seems healthier for people with vocational and primary education is a sedentary lifestyle, indicating that these people spend less time sitting on average.

This healthy trend in habits also significantly impacts people’s perception of their state of health; in fact, the level of self-perceived health is significantly higher in people with higher education than in people with primary education.

Such results are in line with the literature showing that educational level has a significant impact on healthy lifestyle choices ( 52 ). Education is a unique dimension of social status that influences health in a varied, cumulative, and uniformly positive way. Educational attainment is an important indicator of future socio-economic position and influences other achieved social statuses such as occupation and personal income.

Generally, people with higher education are less likely to abuse alcohol, exercise more, and eat healthier food than the average population ( 53 ). Finally, education and health literacy strongly influence healthy behaviors, and less educated individuals have shorter survival and spend more years of life with a disability ( 54 ).

Given the importance of health education and healthy lifestyles, this opens an essential field of public health intervention, where actions could be varied.

On the one hand, one could intervene to facilitate access to higher education for more people who may be unable to do so due to lack of financial resources, time, or adequate knowledge. One measure could be for the state and local government to provide more grants and scholarships for low-income people. Another measure would be for universities and other higher education institutions to offer a broader range of class schedules. For example, in the evening or in different modalities, blended or online, to facilitate participation for those who cannot attend lessons in the morning due to work or family responsibilities. Finally, creating leveling courses for those not considering university studies because they need a solid training base for access could be considered.

On the other hand, it would be possible to intervene in the quality of these higher education courses, to highlight not only the technical aspects of each degree but also a series of cross-cutting subjects that directly affect the health and well-being of the population. We are in a society where one of the most serious epidemics is obesity ( 55 , 56 ) with all its negative consequences ( 57 , 58 ). It seems essential to introduce cross-cutting subjects or specific courses in the curricula of the different degree courses that impact the training in nutrition and healthy habits of university students. Prevention is the most effective weapon against the growth of this serious public health problem.

Analyzing the overall health habits of young Spaniards allows us to affirm that alcohol is not an issue of concern given that most respondents for all groups consume it sporadically, as is tobacco consumption, where most young people do not smoke or smoke only occasionally. Physical activity is also above the recommended 150 min per week to obtain positive health benefits ( 41 ). These healthy habits are reflected in the BMI, within the normal weight category, and in the self-perceived health status which is in the ‘Good’ to ‘Very good’ range for all groups analyzed.

Instead, changes in sedentary lifestyles are necessary, as all groups spend between 7 and 9 h sitting, which is more than the 6 h a day considered healthy. Finally, regarding nutrition, it is found that all groups need to change their food consumption habits. Using the same criteria as in the Norte and Ortiz study to classify the IASE ( 33 ), it is observed that the mean IASE values ranged from a maximum of 55.44 to a minimum of 46.89, both of which were in the range suggesting dietary changes.

This result shows where training efforts should be more specifically focused: in the field of nutrition. In addition to the theoretical training that could be provided in the curricula, as indicated above, several complementary initiatives could be implemented. This comprehends courses on quick and easy cooking for students and young people, who too often abuse ready-made meals and ultra-processed foods ( 59 , 60 ). Moreover, it might be interesting to promote greater legislative control over additives, preservatives, and 4th and 5th-range products used in the food industry. Finally, it should be crucial to demand greater clarity and transparency in the labeling of products and the training of consumers. Therefore, they could know how to interpret labels so that they are always aware of what they are buying and ingesting, among other things.

4.1 Study strengths and limitations

The main strength of this study lies in the size of the sample, which includes a broad representation of young people throughout the Spanish population. One of the weaknesses of the study lies in the type of sampling used: a self-administered questionnaire disseminated in snowball networks. This type of sampling is very powerful because it makes it possible to reach a substantial population. Nevertheless, due to the fact of not answering in front of the interviewer, it is not possible to ensure the identity of the respondent and, sometimes, that the respondent has understood the question correctly. This possible bias has been considered in the design of the questionnaire to minimize it by formulating straightforward questions and answers.

Another bias that should be highlighted is gender, with 81.05% of respondents being female. It is a trend also found in other studies that women are more likely to participate in surveys, mainly if they are focused on health and well-being. To partially alleviate this trend, a conscious effort was made to recruit male representatives for the study, and in the end, 1,835 responses from men were obtained, representing a more than significant sample of this genre.

4.2 Areas for further research

We believe that this study could be the starting point for future research in this field and that it might be interesting to investigate the impact of education and habits on children and adolescents rather than on young adults as has been done. It might also be interesting to disseminate another questionnaire focusing on a male sample.

Another future study that could certainly be of interest could be the design and implementation of specific training programs on nutrition and habits in the young population to measure the impact of this training on health improvement.

It could also be interesting to extend this study to other countries, analyzing whether the conclusions obtained for Spanish young people can be extrapolated to other regions and showing the differences. In this respect, the authors are in the process of translating and culturally adapting the instrument to Italian and Chilean. They will soon be able to collect data in those countries as well.

5 Conclusion

The main results of this work indicate that, in general, people with a higher level of education have healthier lifestyles and better health. It shows how crucial it is for young people to have access to higher levels of education and good training to acquire healthy habits and a healthy lifestyle.

Finally, we found that, in general, the health habits of the young Spanish population seem pretty healthy. However, there is a need for improvement in those aspects related to nutrition and food, indicating a clear field for action on public health interventions.

Data availability statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

Ethics statement

The studies involving humans were approved by Ethics Research Committee of the Catholic University of Valencia (approval code UCV/2019–2020/152). The studies were conducted in accordance with the local legislation and institutional requirements. The participants provided their written informed consent to participate in this study. Written informed consent was obtained from the individual(s) for the publication of any potentially identifiable images or data included in this article.

Author contributions

ES: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Supervision, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. JP: Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. EL: Conceptualization, Data curation, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Validation, Visualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. GO: Conceptualization, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing. AF: Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing.

The author(s) declare that financial support was received for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. This work was supported by Universidad CEU Cardenal Herrera under grant number INDI23/17.

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to thank all those who have collaborated in the research, both by helping to disseminate the questionnaire and by taking the time to answer the survey.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Publisher’s note

All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed or endorsed by the publisher.

Supplementary material

The Supplementary material for this article can be found online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpubh.2024.1341420/full#supplementary-material

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