topics for mass media research paper

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100 Best Media Topics For Research Writing

We know you need the best media topics for your next papers. Otherwise, why would you be reading this blog post? The good news is that you have picked the best place to look for topics. Our experienced writers have put together a list of the best media topics for high school and college students. Furthermore, we work hard to keep the list fresh. This means that these ideas will be most likely original. They will work great in 2023 because the list of media essay topics is updated periodically.

The Importance of Great Media Topics

You are probably wondering why we are putting so much emphasis on getting you the best media topics to write about. There are several reasons for it, but we will only tell you about 3 of them:

Your professor will greatly appreciate your willingness to dedicate the time and effort to finding excellent topics . Trust us, professors know how to make the difference between students based solely on the topics they choose for their papers.
It is much easier to write essays if you choose good media essays topics . A topic you know something about is the best choice. Also, a good topic enables you to quickly find plenty of information on the Internet. Following this advice you’ll easily write your literature review and the following components of your paper.
By choosing a great topic, your essay will immediately stand out from all the rest . Your professor is surely bored of reading papers written about the same things over and over again. An interesting idea will entice him to award you at least some bonus points.

Mass Media Topics

Mass media is something of great importance in modern times, so why not write your papers on some mass media topics? Here are some great examples:

The effect of mass media on psychological health
Mass media and emotional health
Mass media addiction in the US
The role of mass media in politics
The First Amendment in mass media
Promoting sexuality in mass media

Media Research Topics

Did your professor ask of you to write a research paper? No problem, we have some excellent media research topics in our list. Check them out below:

Discuss children media
Violence in mass media in the US
Video games in the media
Controversial topics in the media in Europe
Discuss post-truth in the media
Media regulations in China

Media Analysis Essay Topics for Presentation

Would you like to write a media analysis paper for a presentation? It’s not difficult to do, if you pick the right media analysis essay topics for presentation. Here are some excellent ideas:

Is the media creating events or reacting to them?
Media and public relations links
Discuss 3 major types of media
The use of media in education (one of the most interesting mass media research paper topics)
Influence of virtual reality on the media (one of the best media analysis essay topics)
Discuss journalism ethics

Media Research Paper Topics for High School

Are you a high school student looking for some awesome topic for his next research paper on media? Here are some excellent examples of media research paper topics for high school:

Major innovations in 21st century media
Compare mainstream media in India and China
What makes an outlet a reliable source?
Advertisements in media
Benefits of mass media for society
Compare traditional media with mass media

Mass Media Research Topics

If you need to write a research paper and want to talk about something in mass media, we have some very nice ideas right here. Check out our mass media research topics:

The right of expression in mass media
Journalism in mass media
Compare TV, film and radio
Mass media in democracy
The war against terror in mass media
Discuss the rise of mobile media

Media Research Topics for College Students

College students who are looking to research topics about media should choose something that can bring them a top grade. Here are our best media research topics for college students:

Influences of technology on media
Latest innovations in media
Discuss media censorship in China (a recommended media related topic)
What is media propaganda?
Mass media and its preemptive effects

Complex Media Related Research Topics

Do you want to try your hand at some difficult topics? If you want to impress your professor, we advise you to select one of these complex media related research topics:

Mass media violating civil rights
Does media benefit the economy of the US?
Define media addition and discuss its effects
Perform a qualitative analysis of 3 media outlets
Media’s scare strategies: a case study
Media influencing a rise in violence in the UK

Controversial Media Topics

Why should you be frightened by controversial topics? You are free to write about them, of course. Here are our best and most controversial media topics:

Exercising the First Amendment in media in the US
Promoting gun violence in mass media
Mass media effects on terrorism
Digital media is destroying traditional media
Artificial intelligence in mass media
Media effects on the death penalty in China

Digital Media Topics

Discussing digital media is a very good way to impress your professor. Let’s face it; the digital realm is extremely popular these days. Here are some brand new digital media topics:

Define and discuss digital media
Climate change in digital media
What is mobile media?
The fate of journalism in the 21st century (one of the best digital media research topics)
Effects of digital media on politics

Media Analysis Topics

Writing a media analysis essay can be a very difficult task, especially if you don’t have much academic writing experience. Here are some media analysis topics that should make things easier:

How Trump lost the media war
Biden’s coverage in mass media in the United States
Advertising revenue in media outlets
Analyze screen time
What are deepfakes and how to spot one?
The crisis of journalism in the 21st century

Easy Media Related Topics

The perfect choice for times when you simply cannot afford to spend too much time writing your essay, our list easy media related topics is right here:

Define mass media in the United Kingdom
Should children watch the news?
Promoting violence in mass media
Spreading awareness via media
Are newspapers still relevant today?
The very first occurrence of mass media

Research Topics in Media and Communication

Would you like to talk about media and communication? It is not an easy subject to write about, but we can make things easier. Here are the easiest research topics in media and communication:

Discuss body image in media
Analyze children’s advertising tactics
Freedom of speech in the media
Copyright law in the media
Define symmetrical dialogue in the media

Media Debate Topics

Are you interested in a media debate? Getting the best topics for 2023 should be your primary concern in this case. We have some very interesting media debate topics right here:

The impact of public relations on communities
Location-based advertising in modern media
Analyze the concept of yellow journalism
Good news vs bad news in the media
Discuss the concept of proportionality in media

Brand New Media Topics

Just like you, our writers are interested in writing about the latest topics. Why don’t you pick one of our brand new media topics?

Is radio still an important part of media?
Newspapers going bankrupt in 2023
Sexual content on TV shows
Politicians’ love for the media
Is the backing of the media important for a president?

Media Ethics Topics

Discussing ethics in relation to media is a very interesting choice. It can also get you an A+ on your next paper. Here are some exceptional media ethics topics:

Including graphic images in media
Depicting terrorism on TV
Regulating newspapers in Europe
Celebrity gossip in the media
The influence of large media corporations

Media Law Topics

Yes, there is such a thing as media law. Would you like to write an essay about it? Here are some great ideas for media law topics:

Discuss the First Amendment and media
The responsibilities of journalists
Journalists in war zones
Fake news in the media
Showing unsuitable content to children

Research Topics in Communication and Media Studies

Writing about communication and media studies has the potential to help you get a top grade. Here are our best research topics in communication and media studies:

Analyze media bias in the United States
Is digital media addictive?
Influence of media on religion

Interesting Media Topics

We know, you want the most interesting media topics to write about. Pick one of these and write a paper that will impress your professor:

State-controlled media in China
Effects of media coverage on criminal trials
The power of mass media in 2023

100 Communication Research Topics

Table of contents

1 What Is Communication Research?
2.1 Top Research Topic Ideas
2.2 Research Topics for College Students
2.3 Business-Focused Research Topics
2.4 Social Media Research Topics
2.5 Mass Communication Research Topics
2.6 Interpersonal Communication Research Topics
2.7 Intercultural Communication Research Topics
2.8 Virtual Communication Research Topics
2.9 Health-Related Research Topics
2.10 Interesting Communication Research Topics
3 Coming up with a Thesis Statement
4.1 How to Create Strong Questions for Your Paper?
4.2 How to Find the Right Research Topics?
4.3 What Makes a Research Paper Topic Strong?
4.4 Tips for Structuring and Writing Your Paper
5 Conclusion

All fields of study have fresh and intriguing new research paper topics to explore. Within the subject of communication, there are loads of possibilities for research papers . This is thanks to the development of mass media and the growing popularity of various modern communication methods.

This article covers a broad range of effective research paper topics that are both interesting and relevant for this field. Any of them would make a suitable focal point for any research paper to do with how we interact with one another.

What Is Communication Research?

This is the study of how we interact with one another. It includes how the way we interact is affected by technology, culture, and individual differences. Researchers in this field use a variety of methods to study the way we converse and interact with each other, including surveys, interviews, focus groups, and experiments.

Research in this area can be used to improve communication skills in personal relationships, in the workplace, and in other settings.

Lists of Key Communication Research Topics

The range of research paper topics in this field is extensive, to say the least. Below are 100 relevant topics that are arranged in groups of 10.

They cover a broad selection of modern communication issues and debates, from corporate and computer mediated communication to effective interpersonal communication, communication strategies, and more.

Research Topics for College Students

These topics are ideal for college students. They focus on how communication processes can influence someone’s mental health and personality traits. Both of these are important since they can influence a student’s academic progress.

How does communication shape our identities?
How do we use it to build relationships?
What role does it play in influencing our emotions?
How is our thinking influenced by it?
In what ways do we use it to manage conflict?
How is our behavior influenced by it?
What factors influence the effectiveness of communication?
In what way is it impacted by technology?
What influences do cultural differences have on it?
How does it shape our physical and mental health?

Business-Focused Research Topics

Having effective business communication is necessary for any sort of commercial activity to improve its marketing value. Both business to business communication and interactions with the public have to get the right message across. Below are some potential areas to do with organizational communication and public relations.

The impact of new communication technologies.
The use of social media and external communication.
What effects does globalization have?
How organizational communication is used in virtual teams.
The impact that intercultural communication has.
The way humor is used.
What are the effects of gender?
How we use non-verbal communication.
The effect that technology has on corporate communication etiquette.
The way we use business communication in crisis situations.

Social Media Research Topics

The focus of these topics is on social media, and it affects the way we communicate with one another. Using social media and being exposed to social media marketing can both have significant effects on practical communication skills. These topics focus on the way modern digital platforms influence our interactions.

The effect of social media on communication practices and patterns.
How social media changes relationship development.
What influence does social media have on how people interact with each other?
The effect of social media on the way people share information.
How social media impacts the way people interact with businesses.
The effect of social media on the way people interact with governments through proper communication channels.
What consequences does social media have on online interactions?
The effect that social media has on the way people interact with each other offline.
Social media’s influence on the way people interact with each other in different cultures.
What effects does social media have on the way people interact with each other in different age groups?

Mass Communication Research Topics

Mass communication is when you share information with a large number of people at the same time. Topics to do with mass communication are very relevant, thanks to the internet, social media platforms, and other kinds of mass media. The purpose of mass media is simply to inform loads of people about something as quickly and conveniently as possible.

What effect do social media platforms have on mass communication?
How does new technology affect it?
The impact that advertising has on it.
How news media influences it.
Ways in which propaganda impacts it.
The influence that public relations have on it.
How it’s impacted by digital media and print media.
Globalization’s impact on it.
How new forms of media affect it.
The ways it’s influenced by social networking.

Interpersonal Communication Research Topics

This is a broad term that refers to the exchanging of information between people. It’s when you use effective communication skills to share thoughts, ideas, and facts with at least one other person. The topics in this section look at some of the latest interpersonal communication trends.

The effect of technology on interpersonal communication.
The effect of culture on it.
How gender influences it.
The effect of age on it.
How someone’s interaction style may impact it.
The way context may influence it.
How relationships can influence it.
How it can be influenced by social apprehension.
The effect of social competence on it.
How it’s impacted by satisfaction.

Intercultural Communication Research Topics

This is when people from different cultures exchange information. Things like different languages, traditions, and even artifacts affect intercultural communication. The topics below look at intercultural communication and how culture shapes the many ways we interact with one another.

How culture influences the ways we interact with one another.
The impact of intercultural communication styles on relationships.
How culture impacts our perceptions of interaction.
The effect that interaction has on business relationships.
How culture influences the way we interpret nonverbal communication.
The impact of culture on our way of interpreting speech.
How culture influences our information processing.
The way culture impacts our process of making decision.
The impact of culture on how we solve problems.
How culture influences our interactions with others.

Virtual Communication Research Topics

Are virtual communication skills essential? You have to be just as proficient at virtual dialogue as you are at spoken words. Mastering interactive online communication is key for anyone who wants to succeed, and the topics below delve into this further.

The impact on the development of personal relationships.
The use of virtual dialogue in the business world.
How it influences the way we think and learn.
The benefits of virtual communication for people with social anxiety.
The way it’s used in education.
How it impacts our mental health.
Ways in which it influences family relationships.
How it’s used in the workplace.
The effect it has on relationships.
The advantages and disadvantages of virtual communication.

Health-Related Research Topics

It’s essential to have effective communication strategies in any sort of healthcare setting. Having interpersonal communication competence is vital so that practitioners can speak with patients clearly and effectively. The topics below look at how internal and external communication in the healthcare industry affects and is affected by different factors.

The effectiveness of health communication campaigns in changing health behaviors.
The impact of social media on interactions in the health industry.
How humor is used in it.
How storytelling is used in it.
What effects it has on reducing health disparities.
What effects it has on increasing health literacy.
How new media technologies are used in it.
How it influences public health outcomes.
The role it plays in health education.
The impact it has on patient satisfaction.

Interesting Communication Research Topics

This last batch of topics looks at how both spoken words and non-verbal communication affect different things. Some of the topics are about how we interact with one another in different areas of life.

The impact of new communication technology on social interactions.
The way it is used in the workplace.
How we use it in education.
Ways in which it is used in marketing.
How people use it in healthcare.
The way it affects personal relationships.
The effects it has on organizational cultures.
How it impacts individual productivity.
Its effects on consumer behavior.
The influences it has on the environment.
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Coming up with a Thesis Statement

Once you have come up with a potential research topic, you should start writing. Your first step is to write an effective thesis statement .

Your thesis statement is the argument or main point you want to make about your topic. It’s a summary of what your paper is going to be about. The purpose of it is to show the reader what you will be discussing and invite them to read your work.

Once you have your thesis statement, start writing your paper. Make sure to include evidence from scholarly sources to support your work.

Topic Selection and Writing Tips

How to create strong questions for your paper.

This question doesn’t have a single answer, as the best way to create strong questions for your paper will vary depending on the specific research project and its goals.

However, some tips on how to create strong questions include:

Start by thinking about the specific goals of your research project. What are you trying to learn or understand?
Draft a few potential research questions that can help you answer your goals. Be sure to make them as specific as possible.
Test your research questions by asking them to others to see if they are clear and understandable. Are they interesting to people outside of your field of study?
Revise and refine your research questions as needed. Be sure to keep them concise and easy to understand.

How to Find the Right Research Topics?

When writing a communication research paper, first, you should decide what topic you want to learn more about.

Do the effects of social media and mass media on communication interest you?
What about the role of communication in a competitive global business environment?
What is the impact of new technology on the ways we exchange information?
Whether effective communication is necessary to ensure credible reporting?
How do improved relations make broadcasting media laws effective?

Once you have a general topic in mind, you can begin to narrow it down by focusing on a specific aspect of this field that interests you.

For example, if you are interested in the communication importance in a business market, you might want to focus on the impact of effective business interactions on employee productivity or customer satisfaction.

Alternatively, you could look at how private media ownership is affecting mass media, bringing journalism ethics into the discussion, and how journalists are ensuring credible reporting.

What Makes a Research Paper Topic Strong?

There is no one answer to this question, as it depends on the individual and the specific research goals. However, some factors that could make a research topic strong include its relevance to current events or real-world issues, its potential to generate new and innovative ideas, and its ability to generate interesting and valuable research findings.

Additionally, a strong topic should be interesting and engaging to read and write about, and it should be something that the researcher can be passionate about.

Tips for Structuring and Writing Your Paper

When writing communication research papers, it is important to structure your argument in a manner that’s clear and concise. Your paper should have a clear research paper introduction , body, and conclusion. Within the body of your paper, there should be a strong thesis statement, evidence that supports your argument, and a conclusion summarizing your argument.

Additionally, throughout the research paper writing process, it is significant to use clear and concise language. Use communication tips to help you put your own points across more effectively.

Deciding what to focus your research paper doesn’t have to be daunting. There are a huge number of research topics available. Finding the right one is easy.

First, think about the ideas that interest you the most. Which part of communication studies are you most passionate about? Is it media ethics, mass media, or something else?

When you’ve settled on one of the research topic ideas , start the research paper writing process. Find key sources such as books and academic articles. Think about what needs addressing in your research paper.

Now, it’s time for you to produce an excellent communication research paper.

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Research Topics & Ideas: Journalism

50 Topic Ideas To Kickstart Your Research Project

Research topics and ideas about journalism

If you’re just starting out exploring journalism-related topics for your dissertation, thesis or research project, you’ve come to the right place. In this post, we’ll help kickstart your research by providing a hearty list of journalism-related research ideas , including examples from recent studies.

PS – This is just the start…

We know it’s exciting to run through a list of research topics, but please keep in mind that this list is just a starting point . These topic ideas provided here are intentionally broad and generic , so keep in mind that you will need to develop them further. Nevertheless, they should inspire some ideas for your project.

To develop a suitable research topic, you’ll need to identify a clear and convincing research gap , and a viable plan to fill that gap. If this sounds foreign to you, check out our free research topic webinar that explores how to find and refine a high-quality research topic, from scratch. Alternatively, consider our 1-on-1 coaching service .

Journalism-Related Research Topics

Analyzing the impact of social media on news consumption patterns among millennials.
Investigating the role of investigative journalism in combating political corruption.
The impact of digital transformation on traditional print media business models.
Examining the ethical challenges of undercover reporting in investigative journalism.
The role of citizen journalism in shaping public opinion during major political events.
Analyzing the effectiveness of fact-checking platforms in combating fake news.
The impact of smartphone journalism on the quality of news reporting.
Investigating the representation of minority groups in mainstream media.
The role of photojournalism in humanizing the impacts of climate change.
Analyzing the challenges of maintaining journalistic objectivity in conflict zones.
The impact of artificial intelligence on newsroom operations and reporting.
Investigating the influence of media ownership on editorial independence.
The role of journalism in shaping public policy on environmental issues.
Analyzing the portrayal of mental health issues in news media.
The impact of live streaming technology on broadcast journalism.
Investigating the challenges faced by freelance journalists in the digital era.
The role of journalism in promoting government accountability in emerging democracies.
Analyzing the effects of sensationalism in news reporting on public trust.
The impact of virtual reality technology on immersive journalism.
Investigating the role of press freedom in protecting human rights.
The challenges of reporting on science and technology in mainstream media.
Analyzing gender representation in sports journalism.
The impact of media consolidation on diversity of perspectives in news.
Investigating the ethical implications of drone journalism.
The role of independent media in fostering democratic processes.

Journalism-Related Research Ideas (Continued)

Analyzing the portrayal of immigration in national news outlets.
The impact of censorship and media regulation on journalistic practices.
Investigating the role of podcasts in the future of journalism.
The challenges and opportunities of bilingual reporting in multicultural societies.
Analyzing the dynamics of news reporting in authoritarian regimes.
The impact of audience analytics on news content and presentation.
Investigating the implications of deepfake technology for journalistic integrity.
The role of local journalism in community engagement and development.
Analyzing the effects of journalism on public health awareness campaigns.
The impact of economic pressures on investigative journalism.
Investigating the challenges of reporting in a polarized political climate.
The role of media literacy in fostering critical thinking among audiences.
Analyzing the influence of celebrity journalism on cultural values.
The impact of cross-platform journalism on audience reach and engagement.
Investigating the effects of social media algorithms on news distribution.
The role of data journalism in enhancing transparency and public understanding.
Analyzing the impact of crowd-sourced journalism on news authenticity.
The challenges of balancing speed and accuracy in digital news reporting.
Investigating the role of international correspondents in the digital age.
The impact of public relations practices on journalistic independence.
Analyzing the representation of LGBTQ+ issues in mainstream journalism.
The role of journalism in addressing societal issues like homelessness and poverty.
Investigating the effects of editorial bias in shaping public perception.
The impact of journalism on political activism and social movements.
Analyzing the challenges of maintaining journalistic standards in entertainment reporting.

Recent Journalism-Related Studies

While the ideas we’ve presented above are a decent starting point for finding a research topic, they are fairly generic and non-specific. So, it helps to look at actual studies in the journalism space to see how this all comes together in practice.

Below, we’ve included a selection of recent studies to help refine your thinking. These are actual studies, so they can provide some useful insight as to what a research topic looks like in practice.

Imagination, Algorithms and News: Developing AI Literacy for Journalism (Deuze & Beckett, 2022)
Evaluation of the Effect of a Live Interview in Journalism Students on Salivary Stress Biomarkers and Conventional Stress Scales (Roca et al., 2022)
Professional and Personal Identity, Precarity and Discrimination in Global Arts Journalism (Sharp & Vodanovic, 2022)
The Impact of Information and Communication Technologies on Journalism in the Digital Ara A Descriptive and Critical Approach (Chettah et al., 2022)
Women in Mass Communication (Creedon & Wackwitz, 2022)
Newsgames: Experiential Reality, Ludenic News Reading, Conflict of Purposes and Norms (Cengi̇z & Kaya, 2022)
Deep Journalism and DeepJournal V1.0: A Data-Driven Deep Learning Approach to Discover Parameters for Transportation (Ahmad et al., 2022)
A View From the Trenches: Interviews With Journalists About Reporting Science News (Anderson & Dudo, 2023)
Understanding Journalisms: From Information to Entertainment by Persuasion and Promotion (Bernier, 2022)
Role of educational institutions in promoting medical research and publications in Pakistan (Aslam, 2022)
Ethics for Journalists (Keeble, 2022)
“I Felt I Got to Know Everyone”: How News on Stage Combines Theatre and Journalism for a Live Audience (Adams & Cooper, 2022)
Newsafety: Infrastructures, Practices and Consequences (Westlund et al., 2022)
The Golden Age of American Journalism (Alent’eva et al., 2022)
Advancing a Radical Audience Turn in Journalism. Fundamental Dilemmas for Journalism Studies (Swart et al., 2022)
Mcluhan’s Theories and Convergence of Online and Papers’ Newsrooms (Barceló-Sánchez et al., 2022)
Scientific communication after the COVID-19 crisis: TikTok publishing strategies on the transmedia board (Neira et al., 2023)

As you can see, these research topics are a lot more focused than the generic topic ideas we presented earlier. So, for you to develop a high-quality research topic, you’ll need to get specific and laser-focused on a specific context with specific variables of interest. In the video below, we explore some other important things you’ll need to consider when crafting your research topic.

Get 1-On-1 Help

If you’re still unsure about how to find a quality research topic, check out our Research Topic Kickstarter service, which is the perfect starting point for developing a unique, well-justified research topic.

Research Topic Kickstarter - Need Help Finding A Research Topic?

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Open access
Published: 26 July 2021

Large-scale quantitative evidence of media impact on public opinion toward China

Junming Huang ORCID: orcid.org/0000-0002-2532-4090 1 ,
Gavin G. Cook 1 &
Yu Xie 1 , 2

Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume 8 , Article number: 181 ( 2021 ) Cite this article

19k Accesses

11 Citations

6 Altmetric

Metrics details

Cultural and media studies
Politics and international relations

Do mass media influence people’s opinions of other countries? Using BERT, a deep neural network-based natural language processing model, this study analyzes a large corpus of 267,907 China-related articles published by The New York Times since 1970. The output from The New York Times is then compared to a longitudinal data set constructed from 101 cross-sectional surveys of the American public’s views on China, revealing that the reporting of The New York Times on China in one year explains 54% of the variance in American public opinion on China in the next. This result confirms hypothesized links between media and public opinion and helps shed light on how mass media can influence the public opinion of foreign countries.

United States politicians’ tone became more negative with 2016 primary campaigns

Evolving linguistic divergence on polarizing social media

Sentiment and emotion in financial journalism: a corpus-based, cross-linguistic analysis of the effects of COVID

Introduction.

America and China are the world’s two largest economies, and they are currently locked in a tense rivalry. In a democratic system, public opinion shapes and constrains political action. How the American public views China thus affects relations between the two countries. Because few Americans have personally visited China, most Americans form their opinions of China and other foreign lands from media depictions. Our paper aims to explain how Americans form their attitudes on China with a case study of how The New York Times may shape public opinion. Our analysis is not causal, but it is informed by a causal understanding of how public opinion may flow from the media to the citizenry.

Scholars have adopted a number of wide-ranging and even contradictory approaches to explain the relationships between media and the American mind. One school of thought stresses that media exposure shapes public opinion (Baum and Potter, 2008 ; Iyengar and Kinder, 2010 ). Another set of approaches focuses on how the public might lead the media by analyzing how consumer demand shapes reporting. Newspapers may attract readers by biasing coverage of polarizing issues towards the ideological proclivities of their readership (Mullainathan and Shleifer, 2005 ), and with the advent of social media platforms such as Facebook and Twitter, traditional media are now more responsive to audience demand than ever before (Jacobs and Shapiro, 2011 ). On the other side of this equation, news consumers generally tend to seek out news sources with which they agree (Iyengar et al., 2008 ), and politically active individuals do so more proactively than the average person (Zaller, 1992 ).

Two other approaches address factors outside the media–public binary. The first, stresses the role of elites in opinion formation. While some, famously including Noam Chomsky, argue that news media are unwitting at best and at worst complicit “shills” of the American political establishment, political elites may affect public opinion directly by communicating with the public (Baum and Potter, 2008 ). Foreign elites may also influence American opinion because American reporters sometimes circumvent domestic sources and ask trusted foreign experts and officials for opinions (Hayes and Guardino, 2011 ). The second stresses how the macro-level phenomenon of public sentiment is shaped by micro-level and meso-level processes. An adult’s opinions on various topics emerge from their personal values, many of which are set during and around adolescence from factors outside of the realm of individual control (Hatemi and McDermott, 2016 ). Social networks may also affect attitude formation (Kertzer and Zeitzoff, 2017 ).

In light of these contradictory interpretations, it is difficult to be sure whether the media shape the attitudes of consumers or, on the other hand, whether consumers shape media (Baum and Potter, 2008 ). Moreover, most of the theories summarized above are tested on relatively small slices of data. In order to offer an alternative, “big data”-based contribution to this ongoing debate, this study compares how the public views China and how the news media report on China with large-scale data. Our data set, which straddles 50 years of newspaper reporting and survey data, is uniquely large and includes more than a quarter-million articles from The New York Times.

Most extant survey data indicate that Americans do not seem to like China very much (Xie and Jin, 2021 ). Many Americans are reported to harbor doubts about China’s record on human rights (Aldrich et al., 2015 ; Cao and Xu, 2015 ) and are anxious about China’s burgeoning economic, military, and strategic power (Gries and Crowson, 2010 ; Yang and Liu, 2012 ). They also think that the Chinese political system fails to serve the needs of the Chinese people (Aldrich et al., 2015 ). Most Americans, however, recognize a difference between the Chinese state, the Chinese people, and Chinese culture, and they view the latter two more favorably (Gries and Crowson, 2010 ). In Fiske’s Stereotype Content Model (Fiske et al., 2002 ), which expresses common stereotypes as a combination of “competence” and “warmth”, Asians belong to a set of “high-status, competitive out-groups” and rank high in competence but low in warmth (Lin et al., 2005 ).

The New York Times, which calls itself the “Newspaper of Record”, is the most influential newspaper in the USA and possibly even in the Anglophonic world. It boasts 7.5 million subscribers (Business Wire, 2021 ), and while the paper’s reach may be impressive, it is yet more significant that the readership of The New York Times represents an elite subset of the American public. Print subscribers to The New York Times have a median household income of $191,000, three times the median income of US households writ large (Rothbaum and Edwards, 2019 ). Despite the paper’s haughty and sometimes condescending reporting, it “has had and still has immense social, political, and economic influence on American and the world” (Schwarz, 2012 , p. 81). The New York Times may be a paper for America’s elite, and it may be biased to reflect the tastes of its elite audience, but the paper’s ideological slant does not affect our analyses as long as the its relevant biases are consistent over the time period covered by our analyses. Our analyses support the intuition of qualitative work on The Times (Schwarz, 2012 ) and show that these biases remain more or less constant for the decades in our sample. These analyses also illuminate some of the paper’s more notable biases, including the paper’s particular predilection for globalization.

The impact of social media on traditional media is not straightforward. While new media have certainly changed old media, neither has replaced the other. It is more accurate to say that old media have been integrated into new media and, in some ways, become a form of new media themselves. Twitter has accelerated the 2000s-era trends of information access that made it possible for news readers to find their own news and also enabled readers to interact with journalists (Jacobs and Shapiro, 2011 ), and the The New York Times seems to have made a significant commitment to the Twitter ecosystem. A quick glance at the follower count of The Times’ official Twitter account shows that it is one of the most influential accounts on the site, with almost 50 million followers. For comparison, both current president Joe Biden and vice president Kamala Harris have around 10 million followers. Most New York Times reporters additionally have “verified” accounts on the platform, which means that individual reporters may be incentivized to maintain public-facing profiles more now than in the past.

The media consumption patterns that made new media possible have changed the way The New York Times interacts with its audience and how it extracts revenue. The New York Times boasts a grand total of 7.5 million subscribers, but only 800,000 of them subscribe to the print edition. The Times’ digital subscription base has boomed since the election of Donald J. Trump, growing almost sixfold from a paltry 1.3 million in 2015 to a staggering 6.7 million in 2020 (Business Wire, 2021 ). The Times increasingly relies more on digital subscriptions and less on print subscriptions and ad sales for revenue (Lee, 2020 ). Ad revenue for most papers has been in sharp decline since the early 2000s (Jacobs and Shapiro, 2011 ), and this trend has only continued into the present. The New York Times now operates almost like a direct-to-consumer, subscription tech startup. New media have not replaced but have certainly changed old media. The full impact of these changes is beyond the scope of this paper, and we suggest it as an area for further research.

A small body of prior work has studied the The New York Times and how The New York Times reports on China. Blood and Phillips use autoregression methods on time series data to predict public opinion (Blood and Phillips, 1995 ). Wu et al. use a similar autoregression technique and find that public sentiment regarding the economy predicts economic performance and that people pay more attention to economic news during recessions (Wu et al., 2002 ). Peng finds that coverage of China in the paper has been consistently negative but increasingly frequent as China became an economic powerhouse (Peng, 2004 ). There is very little other scholarship that applies language processing methods to large corpora of articles from The New York Times or other leading papers. Atalay et al. is an exception that uses statistical techniques for parsing natural languages to analyze a corpus of newspaper articles from The New York Times, the Wall Street Journal, and other leading papers in order to investigate the increasing use of information technologies in newspaper classifieds (Atalay et al., 2018 ).

We explore the impact of The New York Times on its readers by examining the general relationship between The Times and public opinion. Though some might contend that only elites read NYT, we have adopted this research strategy for two reasons. If the views of NYT only impacted the nation’s elite, the paper’s views would still propagate to the general public through the elites themselves because elites can affect public opinion outside of media channels (Baum and Potter, 2008 ). Additionally, it is a widely held belief that NYT serves as a general barometer of an agenda-setting agent for American culture (Schwarz, 2012 ). Because of these two reasons, we interpolate the relationship between NYT and public opinion from the relationship between NYT and its readers, and we extrapolate that the views of NYT are broadly representative of American media.

Our paper aims to advance understanding of how Americans form their attitudes on China with a case study of how The New York Times may shape public opinion. We hypothesize that media coverage of foreign nations affects how Americans view the rest of the world. This reduced-form model deliberately simplifies the interactions between audience and media and sidesteps many active debates in political psychology and political communication. Analyzing a corpus of 267,907 articles on China from The New York Times, we quantify media sentiment with BERT, a state-of-the-art natural language processing model with deep neural networks, and segment sentiment into eight domain topics. We then use conventional statistical methods to link media sentiment to a longitudinal data set constructed from 101 cross-sectional surveys of the American public’s views on China. We find strong correlations between how The New York Times reports on China in one year and the views of the public on China in the next. The correlations agree with our hypothesis and imply a strong connection between media sentiment and public opinion.

We quantify media sentiment with a natural language model on a large-scale corpus of 267,907 articles on China from The New York Times published between 1970 and 2019. To explore sentiment from this corpus in greater detail, we map every article to a sentiment category (positive, negative, or neutral) in eight topics: ideology, government and administration, democracy, economic development, marketization, welfare and well-being, globalization, and culture.

We do this with a three-stage modeling procedure. First, two human coders annotate 873 randomly selected articles with a total of 18,598 paragraphs expressing either positive, negative, or neutral sentiment in each topic. We treat irrelevant articles as neutral sentiments. Secondly, we fine-tune a natural language processing model Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT) (Devlin et al., 2018 ) with the human-coded labels. The model uses a deep neural network with 12 layers. It accepts paragraphs (i.e., word sequences of no more than 128 words) as input and outputs a probability for each category. We end up with two binary classifiers for each topic for a grand total of 16 classifiers: an assignment classifier that determines whether a paragraph expresses sentiment in a given topic domain and a sentiment classifier that then distinguishes positive and negative sentiments in a paragraph classified as belonging to a given topic domain. Thirdly, we run the 16 trained classifiers on each paragraph in our corpus and assign category probabilities to every paragraph. We then use the probabilities of all the paragraphs in an article to determine the article’s overall sentiment category (i.e., positive, negative, or neutral) in every topic.

As demonstrated in Table 1 , the two classifiers are accurate at both the paragraph and article levels. The assignment classifier and the sentiment classifier reach classification accuracy of 89–96% and 73–90%, respectively, on paragraphs. The combined outcome of the classifiers, namely article sentiment, is accurate to 62–91% across the eight topics. For comparison, a random guess would reach an accuracy of 50% on each task (see Supplementary Information for details).

American public opinion towards China is a composite measure drawn from national surveys that ask respondents for their opinions on China. We collect 101 cross-sectional surveys from 1974 to 2019 that asked relevant questions about attitudes toward China and incorporate a probabilistic model to harmonize different survey series with different scales (e.g., 4 levels, 10 levels) into a single time series, capitalizing on “seaming” years in which different survey series overlapped (Wang et al., 2021 ). For every year, there is a single real value representing American sentiment on China relative to the level in 1974. Put another way, we use sentiment in 1974 as a baseline measure to normalize the rest of the time series. A positive value shows a more favorable attitude than that in 1974, and a negative value represents a less favorable attitude than that in 1974. Because of this, the trends in sentiment changes year-over-year are of interest, but the absolute values of sentiment in a given year are not. As shown in Fig. 1 , public opinion towards China has varied greatly from 1974 to 2019. It steadily climbed from a low of −24% in 1976 to a high of 73% in 1987, and has fluctuated between 10% and 48% in the intervening 30 years.

This time series is aggregated from 101 cross-sectional surveys from 1974 to 2019 that asked relevant questions about attitudes toward China with the year of 1974 as baseline. Years with attitudes above zero show a more favorable attitude than that in 1974, with a peak of 73% in 1987. Years with attitudes below zero show a less favorable attitude than that in 1974, with the lowest level of −24% in 1976. The time series is shown with a 95% confidence interval.

We begin with a demonstration of how the reporting of The New York Times on China changes over time, and we follow this with an analysis of how coverage of China might influence public opinion toward China.

Trend of media sentiment

The New York Times has maintained a steady interest in China over the years and has published at least 3,000 articles on China in every year of our corpus. Figure 2 displays the yearly volume of China-related articles from The New York Times on each of the eight topics since 1970. Articles on China increased sharply after 2000 and eventually reached a peak around 2010, almost doubling their volume from the 1970s. As the number of articles on China increased, the amount of attention paid to each of the eight topics diverged. Articles on government, democracy, globalization, and culture were consistently common while articles on ideology were consistently rare. In contrast, articles on China’s economy, marketization, and welfare were rare before 1990 but became increasingly common after 2000. The timing of this uptick coincided neatly with worldwide recognition of China’s precipitous economic ascent and specifically the beginnings of China’s talks to join the World Trade Organization.

In each year we report in each topic the number of positive and negative articles while ignoring neutral/irrelevant articles. The media have consistently high attention on reporting China government & administration, democracy, globalization, and culture. There are emerging interests on China’s economics, marketization, and welfare and well-being since 1990s. Note that the sum of the stacks does not equal to the total volume of articles about China, because each article may express sentiment in none or multiple topics.

While the proportion of articles in each given topic change over time, the sentiment of articles in each topic is remarkably consistent. Ignoring neutral articles, Figure 3 illustrates the yearly fractions of positive and negative articles about each of the eight topics. We find four topics (economics, globalization, culture, and marketization) are almost always covered positively while reporting on the other four topics (ideology, government & administration, democracy, and welfare & well-being) is overwhelmingly negative.

The panel reports the trend of yearly media attitude toward China in ( A ) ideology, ( B ) government & administration, ( C ) democracy, ( D ) economic development, ( E ) marketization, ( F ) welfare & well-being, ( G ) globalization, and ( H ) culture. The media attitude is measured as the percentages of positive articles and negative articles, respectively. US–China relation milestones are marked as gray dots. The New York Times express diverging but consistent attitudes in the eight domains, with negative articles consistently common in ideology, government, democracy, and welfare, and positive sentiments common in economic, globalization, and culture. Standard errors are too small to be visible (below 1.55% in all topics all years).

The NYT views China’s globalization in a very positive light. Almost 100% of the articles mentioning this topic are positive for all of the years in our sample. This reveals that The New York Times welcomes China’s openness to the world and, more broadly, may be particularly partial to globalization in general.

Similarly, economics, marketization, and culture are covered most commonly in positive tones that have only grown more glowing over time. Positive articles on these topics began in the 1970s with China–US Ping–Pong diplomacy, and eventually comprise 1/4 to 1/2 of articles on these three topics, the remainder of which are mostly neutral articles. This agrees with the intuition that most Americans like Chinese culture. The New York Times has been deeply enamored with Chinese cultural products ranging from Chinese art to Chinese food since the very beginning of our sample. Following China’s economic reforms, the number of positive articles and the proportion of positive articles relative to negative articles increases for both economics and marketization.

In contrast, welfare and well-being are covered in an almost exclusively negative light. About 1/4 of the articles on this topic are negative, and almost no articles on this topic are positive. Topics regarding politics are covered very negatively. Negative articles on ideology, government and administration, and democracy outnumber positive articles on these topics for all of the years in our sample. Though small fluctuations that coincided with ebbs in US–China relations are observed for those three topics, coverage has only grown more negative over time. Government and administration is the only negatively covered topic that does feature some positive articles. This reflects the qualitative understanding that The New York Times thinks that the Chinese state is an unpleasant but capable actor.

Despite the remarkable diversity of sentiment toward China across the eight topics, sentiment within each of the topics is startlingly consistent over time. This consistency attests to the incredible stability of American stereotypes towards China. If there is any trend to be found here, it is that the main direction of sentiment in each topic, positive or negative, has grown more prevalent since the 1970s. This is to say that reporting on China has become more polarized, which is reflective of broader trends of media polarization (Jacobs and Shapiro, 2011 ; Mullainathan and Shleifer, 2005 ).

Media sentiment affects public opinion

To reveal the connection between media sentiment and public opinion, we run a linear regression model (Eq. ( 1 )) to fit public opinion with media sentiment from current and preceding years.

where μ t denotes public opinion in year t with possible values ranging from −1 to 1. F k j s is the fraction of positive ( s = positive) or negative ( s = negative) articles on topic k in year j . Coefficient β k j s quantifies the importance of F k j s in predicting μ t .

There is inertia to public opinion. A broadly held opinion is hard to change in the short term, and it may require a while for media sentiment to affect how the public views a given issue. For this reason, j is allowed to take [ t , t − 1, t − 2, ...] anywhere from zero to a couple of years ahead of t . In other words, we inspect lagged values of media sentiment as candidate predictors for public attitudes towards China.

We seek an optimal solution of media sentiment predictors to explain the largest fraction of variance ( r 2 ) of public opinion. To reduce the risk of overfitting, we first constrain the coefficients to be non-negative after reverse-coding negative sentiment variables, which means we assume that positive articles have either no impact or positive impact and that negative articles have either zero or negative impact on public opinion. Secondly, we require that the solution be sparse and contain no more than one non-zero coefficient in each topic:

where r 2 ( μ , β , F ) is the explained variance of μ fitted with ( β , F ). The l 0 -norm ∥ β k , ⋅ , ⋅ ∥ 0 gives the number of non-zero coefficients of topic k predictors.

The solution varies with the number of topics included in the fitting model. As shown in Table 2 , if we allow fitting with only one topic, we find that sentiment on Chinese culture has the most explanatory power, accounting for 31.2% of the variance in public opinion. We run a greedy strategy to add additional topics that yield the greatest increase in explanatory power, resulting in eight nested models (Table 2 ). The explanatory power of our models increases monotonically with the number of allowed topics but reaches a saturation point at which the marginal increase in variance explained per topics decreases after only two topics are introduced (see Table 2 ). To strike a balance between simplicity and explanatory power, we use the top two predictors, which are the positive sentiment of culture and the negative sentiment of democracy in the previous year, to build a linear predictor of public opinion that can be written as

where F culture, t −1,positive is the yearly fraction of positive articles on Chinese culture in year t − 1 and F democracy, t −1,negative is the yearly fraction of negative articles on Chinese democracy in year t − 1. This formula explains 53.9% of the variance of public opinion in the time series. For example, in 1993 53.9% of the articles on culture had a positive sentiment, and 46.9% of the articles on democracy had negative sentiment ( F c u l t u r e ,1993,positive = 0.539, F democracy,1993,negative = −0.469). Substituting those numbers into Eq. ( 2 ) predicts public opinion in the next year (1994) to be 0.208, very close to the actual level of public opinion (0.218) (Fig. 4 ).

The public opinion (solid), as a time series, is well fitted by the media sentiments on two selected topics, namely “Culture” and “Democracy”, in the previous year. The dashed line shows a linear prediction based on the fractions of positive articles on “Culture” and negative articles on “Democracy” in the previous year. The public opinion is shown with a 95% confidence interval, and the fitted line is shown with one standard error.

By analyzing a corpus of 267,907 articles from The New York Times with BERT, a state-of-the-art natural language processing model, we identify major shifts in media sentiment towards China across eight topic domains over 50 years and find that media sentiment leads public opinion. Our results show that the reporting of The New York Times on culture and democracy in one year explains 53.9% of the variation in public opinion on China in the next. The conclusion that we draw from our results is that media sentiment on China predicts public opinion on China. Our analysis is neither conclusive nor causal, but it is suggestive. Our results are best interpreted as a “reduced-form” description of the overall relationship between media sentiment and public opinion towards China.

While there are a number of potential factors that may complicate our conclusions, none would change the overall thrust of our results. We do not consider how the micro-level or meso-level intermediary processes through which opinion from elite media percolates to the masses below may affect our results. We also do not consider the potential ramifications of elites communing directly with the public, of major events in US–China relations causing short-term shifts in reporting, or of social media creating new channels for the diffusion of opinion. Finally, The New York Times might have a particular bias to how it covers China.

In addition to those specified above, a number of possible extensions of our work remain ripe targets for further research. Though a fully causal model of our text analysis pipeline may prove elusive (Egami et al., 2018 ), future work may use randomized vignettes to further our understanding of the causal effects of media exposure on attitudes towards China. Secondly, our modeling framework is deliberately simplified. The state affects news coverage before the news ever makes its way to the citizenry. It is plausible that multiple state-level actors may bypass the media and alter public opinion directly and to different ends. For example, the actions and opinions of individual high-profile US politicians may attenuate or exaggerate the impact of state-level tension on public sentiment toward China. There are presumably a whole host of intermediary processes through which opinion from elite media affects the sentiment of the masses. Thirdly, the relationship between the sentiment of The New York Times and public opinion may be very different for hot-button social issues of first-line importance in the American culture wars. In our corpus, The New York Times has covered globalization almost entirely positively, but the 2016 election of President Donald J. Trump suggests that many Americans do not share the zeal of The Times for international commerce. We also plan to extend our measure of media sentiment to include text from other newspapers. The Guardian, a similarly elite, Anglophonic, and left-leaning paper, will make for a useful comparison case. Finally, our analysis was launched in the midst of heightened tensions between the US and China and concluded right before the outbreak of a global pandemic. Many things have changed since COVID-19. Returning to our analysis with an additional year or two of data will almost certainly provide new results of additional interest.

Future work will address some of these additional paths, but none of these elements affects the basic conclusion of this work. We find that reporting on China in one year predicts public opinion in the next. This is true for more than fifty years in our sample, and while knowledge of, for example, the opinion diffusion process on social media may add detail to this relationship, the basic flow of opinion from media to the public will not change. Regarding the putative biases of The New York Times, its ideological slant does not affect our explanation of trends in public opinion of China as long as the paper’s relevant biases are relatively consistent over the time period covered by our analyses.

Data availability

All data analyzed during the current study are publicly available. The New York Times data were accessed using official online APIs ( https://developer.nytimes.com/ ). We used their query API to search for 267,907 articles that mention China, Chinese, Beijing, Peking, or Shanghai. We downloaded the full text and date of each article. The survey data were obtained from three large public archives/centers, namely Roper Center for Public Opinion Research (ROPER), NORC at the University of Chicago, and Pew Research Center (Pew Research Center, 2019 ; Smith et al., 2018 ). See Supplementary Information for a full list of surveys. The source codes and pretrained parameters of the natural language processing model BERT are publicly released by Google Inc. on its github repository ( https://github.com/google-research/bert ). The finetuned BERT models and the inferred sentiment of The New York Times articles in our corpus are publicly available at Princeton University DataSpace. Please check the project webpage ( http://www.attitudetowardchina.com/media-opinion ) or the DataSpace webpage ( https://doi.org/10.34770/x27d-0545 ) to download.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank Chesley Chan (Princeton University), Wen Liu (Renmin University of China), Yichun Yang (Renmin University of China), and Emily Yin (Princeton University) for coding The New York Times articles with the topic-specific sentiment. The authors thank Chih-Jou Jay Chen (Academia Sinica), Cheng Cheng (Singapore Management University), Shawn Dorius (Iowa State University), Theodore P. Gerber (University of Wisconsin-Madison), Fengming Lu (Australian National University), Yongai Jin (Renmin University of China), Donghui Wang (Princeton University) for valuable discussions. The authors thank Xudong Guo (Tsinghua University) for helping fine-tune the BERT model and analyze the calculation results. The authors thank Tom Marling for proofreading the manuscript. The research was partially supported by the Paul and Marcia Wythes Center on Contemporary China at Princeton University and Guanghua School of Management at Peking University.

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Huang, J., Cook, G.G. & Xie, Y. Large-scale quantitative evidence of media impact on public opinion toward China. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 8 , 181 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-021-00846-2

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DOI : https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-021-00846-2

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Media paper topics are important for students as they are a basic component of mass communication. The digital space encompasses many aspects to write about. That is why research work is a very important stage for a student. Besides the fact that you need to adhere to strict rules, you need to be well versed in the chosen topic. It will be the stage in assessing the competence of each student.

Media research topics is a good stage for those who want to understand mass communications and provide expert material that will be well appreciated. Research papers like these are supposed to adhere to technical requirements for presentation, presentation of information, and facts presentation. Any media research topic should be based on reliable data. If you give statistics or any statements, then this must be supported by facts.

All media studies topics require detailed data collection. You need to focus on the main postulates in your work and adhere to the created plan. Each of your statements should be supported by real facts and statistics where necessary. It is best if the topic you choose will correspond to the level of your knowledge and competence. Let's take a look at media research topics that might be of interest to you.

History of Media

Such media research topics for college students are especially popular, as they allow you to choose any period during preparation. You can touch upon the period of formation of journalism and information space in a particular country or worldwide. You can also focus on the differences in the media space of different countries.

History of media culture in the late fifties in the United States.
How did the media space develop in the early 18th century in England?
History of the Chinese media industry.
The process of the emergence of media culture as the main factor in the delivery of information.
The media culture of Israel in the context of opposition to Palestine.
Historical aspects of the development of media culture in Yugoslavia.
The historical context as a symbol of the development of media culture.
The main bases of the historical development of media.
History of the North Korean media industry.
The media industry of the Netherlands.
Historical prerequisites for the creation of mass media.
The role of contemporary mass media in American history.
The major failures in the history of mass media.
Political information as the main institution of historical mass media.

Media Psychology

Such research topics in mass media are also popular because they offer many opportunities for exploring the psychological aspects and nuances of influence on the world community. You can focus on certain aspects of mass management or the techniques that news sites practice to retain audiences.

Influence of media psychology on the development of consciousness.
Managing the masses using media psychology.
What is propaganda, and how is it related to Media Psychology?
Nuances of manipulation using psychological factors.
How does the media industry influence modern trends in psychology?
The crowd power and media industry.
How does media psychology affect the manipulation of consciousness?
New trends in media psychology.
Psychological aspects when creating news on TV channels.
Methods of manipulating psychological factors.
Psychological aspects of interviews for mass media.
The influence of the media space.
The nuances of the modern media channels.
The analysis of psychological activity on the example of mass media.
Modern psychological challenges in the context of mass media.

Politics and Mass Media

Such research topics in media and communication allow you to choose a niche related to politics and even individuals. For example, you can focus on collecting information about politicians and their impact on the digital information field. A research paper on contemporary dictators and media manipulation techniques can be especially interesting.

Mass media as a subject of political speculation.
Why is political debate a way to influence the masses?
Disadvantages of mass media during political elections.
New trends in propaganda in the political environment.
The popularization of politicians through the mass media.
Political change through the lens of news channels.
Does the mass media influence the rating of politicians?
The importance of mass media in the lives of voters.
The role of mass media in the formation of the political image.
The ethereal debate of politicians.

Entertainment and Education

This section of mass media research topics will allow you to focus on educational and entertainment topics. For example, you can create your paperwork based on a show. Any media project with an educational or entertainment bias is suitable for this. You can also focus on what impact a particular digital product has had on the public.

The impact of National Geographic on the education of an entire generation.
Entertainment programs as a method of attracting an audience.
Basic methods of education through mass media.
The influence of entertainment shows on the formation of TV channel ratings.
Main factors of popularization of entertainment shows on TV.
Modern talk shows and their impact on social culture to new trends in educational television programs.
How has television changed in the context of educational programs?
New trends in entertainment channels during the quarantine period.
The main entertainment show of the last decade.
The secret to the success of the Oprah show.
Entertainment aspects of modern TV channels.
The role of mass media in modern entertainment trends.
Analysis of information and entertainment TV programs.
The means and modern trends and TV shows with educational content.
The role of education in modern mass media.

Teenagers and The Media

Media essay topics like these are especially relevant as they show the relationship between teenagers and the digital space. For example, you can choose modern information resources or social networks in the context of influencing a young audience. Research like this can reveal trends and patterns that are especially relevant to teenagers.

Children bloggers and the media space.
The impact of social culture on teenagers.
Modern music trends in the media space.
Analysis of teenagers' dependence on media popularity.
New Instagram trends and stages of mass media promotion.
Media culture and its impact on teenage preferences.
Teenage preference in media culture.
Does mass media influence the development of modern children?
Nuances of Media broadcasts for teenagers.
The daily media marathons for teenagers.
The impact of adolescent culture on social media.
New journalistic staff among teenagers.
Main factors of using teenagers in mass media.
The nuances of creating a positive image of teenagers in the mass media.
Analysis of modern youth TV channels.

Mass Communications Law

When choosing media research paper topics, you must be prepared to rely on legal facts and legislation. The fact is that mass communications law allows us to consider any aspect of journalism and telecommunications through the prism of legislation. You can choose a narrow topic to cover all aspects and details in your research work.

Legislative aspects of cigarette advertising regulation.
The influence of advertising on the popularization of products.
Legislative loopholes and their application in the media.
Legal formalities in the context of mass media.
Influence of mass media on amendments to the constitution.
Journalistic ethics and law.
Legal aspects of television censorship.
Legal opportunities to create exclusive news.
Freedom and journalistic ethics.
Legal collection of information.
Legislative aspects of communication technologies.
The impact of social media on the US legislative framework.
The main reasons for the modern divergence in journalism.
Legitimate aspects of the existence of a journalistic agency.
Formalities and legal norms of mass media.
Major aspects of legal news channels.
The selection of legal topics for informational publications.
The analysis of the legal framework in journalistic investigations.

Media Bias Research Paper

These media research paper topics are especially relevant because bias is very common in news sources worldwide. You can choose any information precedent that relates to bias towards a certain topic or event in the world. A lot of news outlets have published false or biased facts so that you can concentrate on that.

The BBC's role in shaping public opinion about certain news.
The impact of American representation in contemporary culture.
The provocation and shock content in modern mass media.
The responsibility of the media for bias on the air.
The reputation he had for her loss of TV channels during political elections.
Ecology and events as a major factor in misinformation.
The media and their impact on public opinion about migrants.
Political bias as an element of political struggle in the mass media.
The philosophy of television news.
The major social warnings during terrorist attacks.
The bias as the main problem of modern TV channels.
The role of politics in media bias.
Analysis of bias and aggressiveness of modern TV channels.
Sociological polls as a method of prejudice against certain political persons.

Media Violence Research Paper

These media research paper topics are very relevant, as you can find many examples of violence in today's information space. One of the areas for your research may be the media's attitude to the violence and a specific approach to public awareness. There are many examples when the media space deliberately promoted the topic of violence, so it should not be difficult for you to find it.

Violence as the main topic in the mass media.
Cultivating violence in the context of contemporary news.
The role of TV news channels in the influence of social intolerance and.
Racism and preconditions of information bias and.
How do TV channels influence the formation of social opinion?
The main aspects of disinformation in the social space.
The main nuances of creating a wrong opinion about certain aspects.
Modern trends of media violence in the context of the epidemic.
Nuances of social movements in the mass media.
Reasons for increased cruelty in the media.
The main reasons we carried in the information environment.
Investigative reporting of violence and press releases.
The main factors of increasing violence in news stories.
The street violence as a source for news publications.

Journalism and News Research Topics

These digital media research topics are suitable for those who want to focus on journalism and news agency research. You can compare approaches to shaping media news or on the nuances of journalism. There are many TV channels, web resources, or radio stations with news, so choosing a topic will not be difficult.

The influence of journalists on the news coverage of the event.
The main trends of the modern information space.
Research on the influence of journalists on news bias.
Information blocks in modern TV channels.
Reasons and popularization of disinformation in the mass media.
Journalists and their influence on many factors of the social environment in the mass media.
Technical nuances and main features of the profession of a journalist.
Relevant news in the context of journalistic ethics.
The main nuances of the study of journalistic disinformation.
The main factors of journalistic ethics and news sources.
Analysis of news in the context of modern trends.
The main norms of journalistic ethics point research structure of the interview.
Journalism as a factor in the development of society.
Correct aspects of social media interviews.

Social Media Research Topic

Media analysis essay topics like these allow you to delve deeper into the digital space's social nuances. For example, you can write about social media and its impact on modern life. This can be especially relevant in the context of modern media search.

Stages of creating news stories.
Social media and their role in modern society.
The nuances of the development of information channels.
The main factors for the identification of social media.
Nuances of methodical work in the media sphere.
The main parameters of social activity for creating informational reasons.
Social media research methodology.
Data analysis and formation of news publications.
Social media as the main tuning fork of modern society.
Nuances of analytical aspects of social media.
The influence of social trends on the specifics of the information space.
The main trends in social inequality.
Social news analysis and terminology.

Social Media Marketing

Such media studies research topics allow you to write about modern marketing gimmicks and their impact on society. You can choose a specific topic related to a specific site, TV channel, or general media space. Be sure to include real examples detailing your overall media marketing strategy.

The role of marketing in the modern information space.
Social media, as the main economic factor in the United States.
Stages in the evolution of television marketing campaigns.
Modern advertising as an engine of mass culture.
Mass media and technical aspects of marketing.
Analysis of social media in the context of advertising campaigns.
Identification of mass media as a source of information.
Marketing prerequisites for the development of social media.
Analysis of the overall popularity of mass media in the context of marketing campaigns.
Nuances of modern marketing using the example of mass media.
Marketing realities of modern information stands.
The role of the information space on the formation of social activity.

Journalism Ethics

Very often, the media forget about moral norms and publish false information. Journalistic ethics can be a good topic for your research paper. There are many examples of deliberately false information and examples of substitution of facts. This can be extremely interesting for detailed research.

The importance of journalistic ethics in modern society.
The basic aspects of honest media.
What are journalistic ethics and honest research?
Basic tenets of journalistic ethics in modern media
The need to create an institution of journalistic ethics
Disinformation as the main problem of journalistic investigations.
Honest news and journalistic ethics.
Foundations of social equality and ethical standards of journalism.
The main nuances of the ethics of journalistic interviews.
The main advantage of journalistic ethics in local news sites.

How to Write a Research Paper on Media Topics?

Any research paper should start by choosing a topic that is relevant to you. You should choose the media area where your competence can manifest itself the most. You have to create a complex paper with statistical data and concrete confirmation of your statements. This is especially true when you choose a biased research paper.

The second aspect is the technical requirements for the design and structuring of data. You should adhere to the general guidelines, provide links to information sources, and confirm all your statements. Then your research paper will have weight and will bring you high marks.

If you are not sure about the expertise of your data, then you can use our services. We'll help you create the research paper that gets the highest marks. Thanks to our extensive experience in this area, we can guarantee expert work and high results.

An Inspiration List

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Media Bias Ratings
Media Bias/Fact Check
Social media - Statistics & Facts
Social Media Stats Worldwide
Business Media

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100 Best Media Topics To Write About

Students must choose brilliant media topics to come up with papers and essays that will earn them top grades. A wrong topic can compromise your grade even after investing time and effort in a research project. It’s, therefore, crucial to research a topic wisely before you decide to write about it.

Mass media topics that address emerging issues or recent developments in this field can attract your readers’ attention. However, you should research your topic extensively and analyze your information to come up with a paper that will impress your educator.

Selecting Mass Media Topics

Top 20 media topics for research, media research topics for college students, research topics in communication and media studies for dissertations, trending media topics for research papers, interesting media law topics.

Choosing mass media research topics is not always easy. That’s because most topics have been written about by other scholars. As such, you can easily find a publication with an essay or paper about a topic that you might have in mind. And this makes generating a unique topic idea difficult for some learners.

Luckily, you don’t have to struggle to come up with a topic for your paper or essay, because our assignment service is ready to help you. This article comprises some of the best media research topics to consider if your educator has assigned you a research paper or essay assignment. Simply pick one of these media research paper topics twist it a little or work with it to come up with an A grade write-up.

Perhaps, you’re looking for topics that everybody interested in the media field will want to read about. In that case, consider this list of the top media topics to write about.

Are roadside billboards effective when used to promote FACT products?
How mass media facilitates cultural diffusion globally
How the media influence young children
The impact of mass media on organizational efficiency
How print media ads and TV commercials affect consumer purchases
The techniques used by the West in recording
Can mass media be a tool for social reforms?
How the media over-emphasize terrorism
How mass media supports the establishment of public influence by political parties
The effectiveness of the door-to-door technique for promoting sales
How the mass media violates consumers’ privacy rights
Is modern mass media free from legal and ethical constraints?
Should parents supervise their children when watching TV?
How the government impose policies and rules on news channels
TV channels should have exclusive content for children
How radio is losing value and charm due to innovative media outlets
How the media affects the behavior of young adults and teens
The redundancy of reality shows
Why news channels should censor their coverage of violent events
How businesses can use mass advertisements to increase sales revenue

Pick any of these research topics in media and communication to come up with a research paper your teacher or audience will want to read from the beginning to the end. Nevertheless, be ready to research your topic extensively to come up with a brilliant topic.

Students have to write about media-related topics when pursuing mass media studies in college. To come up with an interesting paper or essay that will earn you the top grade, learners must select and write about interesting media topics. Here are some of the best topics to consider for your college paper or essay.

Influence of mass media ads on consumer behavior
The role of mass media in the dissemination of agricultural information
How the media affects the academic performance of students
The reality and illusion of press freedom in a democratic government
The audience perception of political news coverage by the media
How the media can promote pornography indirectly
How billboard advertising affect product promotion
How a government’s attempt to influence the media can affect society
How effective are radio adverts on family planning methods and programs?
How information and communication technology affects radio reporting
How the media promotes some role models
The agenda-setting role of the media
How television advertising shapes perceptions
How the media can influence the political decisions of the masses
Effects of modern technologies on how people use mass media
How the freedom of information affects journalism practices
How politicians can use the media to mobilize the masses
Effects of government ownership of a broadcasting service
How television broadcasting can affect election campaigns
How to use mass media for integrated communication in marketing

Pick and write about any of these media-related research topics to earn the top grade. Nevertheless, be prepared to research your chosen topic extensively to come up with a brilliant paper.

Your educator will ask you to choose and write about at least one media-related topic when pursuing your mass media and communication studies. In that case, you have to choose a topic you’re comfortable researching and writing about. Here are some of the best ideas to get you started.

Media coverage of women’s role in the Muslim nations
How the media covers the violation of human rights in the developing countries
How the state intimidates the media in the contemporary society
How some governments use the national security excuse to gag the media
What role does the government play in strengthening the media?
Mass media economics- How does the media benefit a country economically?
How effective are traditional teaching techniques in media studies?
Should the media avoid releasing unethical communications for justice purposes?
How can the media avoid violating privacy rights in the digital age?
How can journalists embrace a balanced approach to news reporting?
How the media influence the perception of a perfect body shape among girls
Should media personalities adhere to cultural practices and expectations?
How can the media help in ending racial discrimination?
What are the implications of political ownership of a media channel?
How opinion leaders influence the effectiveness of the media
How an independent television influences political mobilization in a country
How effective mass media can help in conflict resolution
How mass media promotes gender inequality
How editorial policies affect news coverage
How violent films on television affect the young audience

These are great media essay topics for academic dissertations. Pick any of these topics and then take your time to research extensively before writing your dissertation.

To impress your educator and score the top grade, you should pick a trendy media research topic. Ideally, your topic should be about something your audience can resonate with. Here is a list of trendy mass media research paper topics to consider.

How technology is changing the mass media definition
Propaganda and media censorship
How the freedom of speech affects modern media
Key aspects of modern communication
How media images represent modern society
How the media incorporate hidden messages in entertainment
Is radio still a popular mass media channel?
What is scientific journalism and how does it affect media consumption?
Is the Disney phenomenon media or a form of new mythology?
How the internet influences media policies
Does the media react to or create events?
Are people reverting to newspapers due to trust issues?
How media regulations and policies vary among countries
Can a journalist stick to media ethics when covering political campaigns?
Fan-fiction and fandom in mass media
What is the post-truth age in the mass media?
Arthouse versus mainstream media
Does the media prevent or enhance panic?
How the media promotes terrorism indirectly
Media companies versus bloggers

Choose any of these research topics in media and communication if your goal is to write about something trendy. However, make sure that you’re conversant with issues surrounding most new media topics to come up with an excellent paper or essay.

Most students confuse media law and media ethics topics. Laws are rules that govern the media while ethics are the moral values that media practitioners should abide by. Ethics guide the professional behavior or conduct of journalists. This category is also a great source of media debate topics. You can also find brilliant media analysis topics in this category. Here are some of the best media essays topics to consider if you love writing about laws and ethics.

Detailed analysis of media laws and ethics in the U.S
Perceptions of media law among graduate students
A comparison of media laws in the developing and developed countries
Changes in the media law in the U.S over the years
How media laws influence the evolution of a country’s political landscape
How the media facilitates the law-making process
Media law relevance for business opportunities
How media law influence sensitive issues’ coverage and reporting
How privacy laws protect TV consumers
The implication of criminal reporting- Analysis of privacy laws and transparency interplay
Big data and media- Practical interpretations of media laws
Media laws in communist countries
How media laws affect radio broadcasters- Practice issues and guidelines
The importance of media laws in contemporary society
How reinforcing media laws can lead to gaging of the media
What is the role of the government in the reinforcement of media laws?
How speech freedom differs from the media laws
Media freedom in emerging and developed economies
Advertisement laws for digital versus print media- a perspective of the UK media
How does media freedom differ from media regulation?
Some of these ethics paper topics

This category also has controversial media topics worth exploring. You can also find digital media research topics that relate to laws and ethics. Nevertheless, be prepared to research any of these topics extensively to come up with a paper or essay that will earn you the top grade.

Students have many media literacy topics to consider when writing academic papers and essays. But whether you opt to write about digital media topics or media analysis essay topics, you should research extensively before writing. That way, you will find great information that your audience will be interested to read about.

Get on top of your homework.

Journalism Research Topics: 120+ Ideas to Consider

Journalism is quite a broad industry that entails enumerating helpful information and showing it on different media channels, including television, social media, radio, and beyond.

For framing an outstanding research paper, your topic must enable your audience to focus on the key issues and make them keen to know more about your topic. However, finding the perfect topic isn’t easy.

Students often select their topic in haste and later realize that there needs to be more information or evidence to prove their hypothesis. Others get bored with their research after choosing a tedious journalism topic.

Journalism is an excellent subject that can open up many exciting ideas for students. However, this blog is genuinely written for you if you’re facing difficulty. Here are some unique journalism research topics you can use as inspiration.

Table of Contents

How to Choose Your Journalism Research Topic:

Finding a unique journalism topic is complex and requires extensive research and clever work. Generally, the internet is stuffed with thousands of journalism topics to write about, but the real struggle lies in identifying your “perfect” topic within that.

We have compiled a few suggestions that might help you create brilliant topics:

Students must refrain from any extravagantly broad topic, as it can be time-consuming and lead to confusion among students.
Choose a subject or topic that sparks your interest and curiosity level.
Students need to narrow their research into essential research questions.
Avoid providing a research paper based on goofy journalism topics to avoid misinterpretation or negative impact on your audience. Instead, ensure that your chosen topic will be informative for your readers.
Choose a novel topic that emphasizes distinct issues so readers can understand the fundamental research.

Thus, if you are about to research your journalism topic, ensure it stands in line with your university guidelines. Furthermore, ensure that your topic adheres to all the above-mentioned suggestions.

120+ Journalism Research Topics

As intended professional journalists, brilliant journalism ideas will always be welcomed and appreciated by your professors.

As mentioned, journalism is compiling, collecting, and assessing unique data and information on major on-going events. Along with writing on special journalism topics, one should also be open to writing about innovative discoveries about a pre-existing event.

We have thoroughly compiled a list of some contemplated journalism research topics that you can use as inspiration to get started with the writing business right away:

Journalism Research Topics for High School Students

Celebrities’ rights to privacy: How far should the paparazzi be allowed to infringe?
Examining the impact of racism in the media, both positive and negative
How do electronic media outlets influence journalism in the present era?
The influence of famous personalities on the independence of the media and journalists.
Challenges and opportunities for journalism in the 21st century
Impact of the media on diplomacy
Explain why it is inappropriate for famous people and idols to be subjected to media trials.
Why is radio still a crucial medium of communication in the twenty-first century?
Televisions must stop broadcasting sexual content.
Investigating journalism as a dangerous profession
Comment on the sexualization of women in media advertisements
Describe the effects of media misdirection and misinformation.
Describe ways to regulate mass media to guarantee that students are only minimally exposed to inappropriate content.
Why is the United States of America considered a global superpower?
The role of media outlets during the pandemic
Imperativeness of journalism for disadvantaged social groups
Is print media no longer necessary in the age of social media?
How has technology altered media

Brilliant Mass Communication and Journalism Research Topics

Read Also – 400+ Philosophy Research Paper Topics

The credibility of online journalism
The role of journalism in war zones
Current Changes in Journalism in the United States
Theoretical and methodological trends in journalism
The history of journalism
Journalism and the construction of police brutality
Media’s role in curbing corruption
Political women in media culture
A critical review of the methodological trends and controversies surrounding the use of opinion polls
Media’s role in exposing corrupted politicians
Government-sanctioned journalism in China
News workers, technology, and journalism history
Trends in fake news in the modern media space
Media censorship in China
The future of blogging and journalism in the United States
Critical analysis of how the British journalists try to win over the royals
Bridging media psychology and cognitive neuroscience

Sports Journalism Research Topics

Empirical research on racial discrimination in sports
The journey of a sportsperson: researching the importance of storytelling for sports persons
A qualitative investigation into the lives of sportswomen
Impact of sports journalism on the construction of “body image” in the mind of a younger generation
Homophobia in modern sports and the role of media channels in increasing such negativism
Ethics in sports journalism
Protecting brand through media and journalism channels
Trans journalist association for sports: opportunities and challenges
TVG Network in sports reporting
What happened to Adriano: investigating the Dark Story Behind the Retirement of “Next Door” Ronaldo
Evaluating media’s role in helping GenZ athletes to seek their “authentic voice.”
The challenges of sports media during Covid19 outbreak
The part of sports journalism in entertaining the masses
Richie Benaud, the voice of cricket and an influential broadcaster
James Hird’s suspected drug overdose: invasive reporting violates the right to privacy
Sports journalism as strategic sports marketing
The dangers of sports journalism
FIFA world cup 2022: restrictions on journalists for covering the event
The harsh truth of replacing sports journalism with “mindless gossip columnists.”

Investigative Journalism and Media Topics for Research

Read Also – 40 Architecture Thesis Topics

Examining the impact of television advertising on the moral behaviors of young minds
Representation of Muslim women and Islam by journalists
The evolution of the media in the United States
Sports journalism: Why is it challenging for sports journalists to succeed in sports broadcasting?
Compare and contrast FOX and BBC news reports.
Countering the false image of Arab women in the Arab media
The influence of print media on the advancement of pop culture
Transculturation in media translation
Why do celebrity rumors frequently dominate media outlets as opposed to important news?
The life and works of Eric Eyre
Justify the lack of explicit depictions of atrocity in the media.
Describe why the Government primarily uses the media as a propaganda tool.
Examine whether politicians rely on the media to maintain their power.
A critical analysis of freedom and the press.
Money has corrupted the media: an overview.
The life and works of Dean Banquet
The correlation of media and Government
Media bias in investigative journalism

Electronic Media Topics for Research

Media Education in the Age of Disruptive Media
Evaluating the future of broadcasting from a global perspective
The internet explosion
Is print media dead?
Broadcasting in the era of electronic media
Communication through electronic media platforms
Analyzing the role of electronic media channels in shaping modern-day journalism
The impact of electronic media on social behavior

Journalism Topics Straight From the Experts

Describe the effects of biased journalism and why it could harm society.
An in-depth look at international journalism
Compare and contrast the Obama and Trump administrations’ treatment of the media.
Research the “Black Lives Matter” movement and examine how the media contributed to its growth.
The connection between politics and the media: Are there any media organizations that are politically apolitical?
Does media coverage of conflict have any beneficial or adverse effects?
Understanding journalism as a dangerous profession
The influence of journalism and its impact on army operations
Mass media censorship in North Korea
Crisis of Credibility in Journalism and the Media in an Era of Radical Nationalism
The business of journalism: fake news, but real money!
How media channels are spreading hatred and violence
Investigative reporting on the Brazilian drug trade

Literary Journalism Topics to Write About

Read Also – History of Modern Literature

Literary journalism in the twentieth century
Employing metaphors in headlines.
Justify the need for social media platforms to outlaw fake news.
Are American enemies treated correctly by the media?
How has journalism been affected by scientific and technological advances?
American literary journalism
Literary journalism and the drama of civic life
Understanding the rise of literary journalism in the eighteenth century
Researching Tesla’s unique business model
The evolving ethics of journalism in the 21st century
Consider the necessity for real-life tales in the media of today.
A theoretical analysis of the theory of the social responsibility of journalism
Communication theory in journalism: are journalists the new peacekeeping force?

Political Journalism and Mass Media Topics for Research

Read Also – 200 Political Science Research Topics

Propaganda in the mass media
Understanding the psychology of media and politics
Evaluating the credibility of public media organizations
New complexities and practices in political journalism
Popular political media tactics of political parties in the United States
Can the media influence election outcomes?
Investigations into the lives of prominent American politicians
Political scandals cause media introspection.
Evaluating the impact of politics on mass media
The politics of public journalism

Unique Journalism Research Topics

Look into the Government’s media regulation policies.
Examining the media’s role in eradicating poverty
Describe how readers may verify the accuracy and reliability of news reports.
Part of the Media in the Russia-Ukraine Crisis
How did the Vietnam War’s coverage in the media change over time?
The authoritarian theory of the press
Describe the fundamental problems that journalism faces.
Examines the question of whether media outlets are to blame for the dissemination of dubious news.
Comprehending the media’s role in eradicating illiteracy rates in developing and under-developed nations
Contributions and the roles of journalists in COVID-19 pandemic management
Transculturation’s significance in media translation
Investigation into famous American politicians

Winding Up!!

Know that each research topic mentioned above has been carefully selected to help you with your research.

We understand coming up with the best topic will be something other than a walk in the park. It would be a challenging journey, mainly because no amount of diligent work can fully guarantee your expected results.

The above topics will allow you to efficiently conduct extensive research, interviews, and other practical methods of collecting relevant data for your research. Last but not least, remember this is your one shot, so give it your best effort. Good luck with your future endeavors!

By Alex Brown

I'm an ambitious, seasoned, and versatile author. I am experienced in proposing, outlining, and writing engaging assignments. Developing contagious academic work is always my top priority. I have a keen eye for detail and diligence in producing exceptional academic writing work. I work hard daily to help students with their assignments and projects. Experimenting with creative writing styles while maintaining a solid and informative voice is what I enjoy the most.

Mass Media Research Paper

View sample mass media research paper. Browse other research paper examples and check the list of history research paper topics for more inspiration. If you need a research paper written according to all the academic standards, you can always turn to our experienced writers for help. This is how your paper can get an A! Feel free to contact our custom writing service for professional assistance. We offer high-quality assignments for reasonable rates.

Mass media—modes of communications intended to reach large numbers of people—have played an important role in world history, rousing populations in various times and places to resist governmental or other oppression, and calling those in power to account.

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Communications media that are geared to reaching the masses—mass media—has been a force in social, political, and cultural change throughout history. It is not surprising that in many countries rulers have refused to permit a free press, and journalists have even been killed for speaking out. In some countries the media are nothing more than the official voice of those in power, whereas in others, the media have served as the voice of resistance or even revolution.

The First Print Mass Media

Perhaps the first newspaper was the Acta Diurna (Daily Transactions) in ancient Rome. Julius Caesar decided to make the proceedings of the government available to the citizenry, and starting in 59 BCE, they were posted in public places. Later versions were called the Acta Urbana (Transactions of the City) or the Acta Senatus (Transactions of the Senate). These news sheets were hand-copied by scribes, probably on papyrus, and they were undoubtedly subject to government oversight and control. Good news about the Roman Empire was much more likely to appear in writing than bad news. In addition to the daily doings of those in power, the Acta contained birthday and wedding announcements and information about new buildings being dedicated. Later emperors expanded the role of the Acta, using them to disseminate favorable stories about themselves or unfavorable stories about particular rivals. The Acta seem to have been very popular and to have reached a wide audience; those who could not read stood waiting until someone (a professional town crier or literate passerby) would read the news aloud. The orator and historian Tacitus (c. 56–c. 120 CE) wrote in his Annals that people from all walks of life eagerly read the various Acta, and political leaders found them an invaluable resource.

Another ancient empire that made use of something resembling a newspaper was Tang-dynasty China (618–907 CE), where the Di bao (Court Gazette) contained news gathered by various members of the governing elite. Originally intended for members of the imperial court, it was later expanded to include the intellectuals, but unlike the Acta, it was not posted anywhere that the general public could read it. By the time of the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), newspapers received wider dissemination, but the elites still wanted information restricted to a select few and wanted control over what the general public read. It was not until the 1800s that the newspaper industry in China began to flourish.

Early European Mass Media

Although the Chinese inventor Bi Sheng had developed a method of printing using movable wood blocks around 1041, Europe did not make use of moveable type until Johannes Gutenberg developed his printing press around 1438.

Prior to the mid-1800s, European publications that reported on news events were called by various names. One of the oldest forms of publication to survive is the coranto; the first coranto was published in Amsterdam in December 1620 and was more of a pamphlet than what we would today call a newspaper. Most of the corantos were published in Dutch. They focused on business news and on political news that might affect business. Amsterdam was a very cosmopolitan city, with merchants who traveled throughout the known world. They wanted to know what was going on in other countries where they might engage in commerce. As a result, corantos became very popular; at one period in the mid-1600s there were as many as eight weeklies or biweeklies, bringing news from Africa, Asia, Italy, Germany, and elsewhere.

In Italy there was the gazette, a weekly news sheet that seems to have originated in Venice in the mid- 1500s (although some historians question the date, as they also question whether the sheet really took its name from the coin gazeta with which one paid for it). Gazettes, like corantos, contained business and political news and were read both by the general public and by the many merchants who came to Italy. In Germany there were weeklies as early as 1615, and a daily newspaper, the Leipziger Zeitung (Leipzig Newspaper), began in 1660. These newspapers covered politics, culture, and science, and provided important information during the Thirty Years’ War. But the German press was frequently subjected to restrictions by the government.

In Paris, as early as 1488, there were occasionnels— government leaflets about four pages in length. Mostly published in Lyon and Paris, they were mainly brief summations of what the government was doing. From about 1529 there were also the canards, publications of a more sensational and sometimes polemical nature. French exiles living in Amsterdam published broadsides that criticized the intolerance of King Louis XIV; these publications were called lardons (“jibes”), and the exiles, mostly Huguenots, had them smuggled into France during the late 1690s. Early in 1777, Paris gained its first daily newspaper, the Journal de Paris (Newspaper of Paris), but the government maintained strict control over what could be printed. An underground press existed for dissenting voices. There were also some women who participated in journalism, publishing a monthly newspaper called the Journal des Dames (The Ladies’ Newspaper),which first appeared in 1759. Its editors believed in “the female public’s right—and obligation—to be informed about controversial matters” (Landes 1988, 58–59) Unfortunately, as with other newspapers of that time, it frequently encountered government censorship, as well as resistance to its call for greater female participation in public life. It ceased publication in 1778.

In Spain under King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, all printers had to be licensed. The first Spanish newspaper was probably the Correos de Francia, Flandres y Alemania (News of France, Flanders and Germany), founded by Andres de Almansa y Mendoza in 1621. In Spain’s colony in Mexico, the Gaceta de Mexico y Noticias de Nueva Espana (Mexico Gazette and the News of New Spain), regarded by some as Mexico’s first newspaper, appeared in January 1722, published by Juan Ignacio Maria de Castorena y Ursua, who later became Bishop of Yucatan.

In England the earliest surviving newspaper, from September 1621, is the Weekely Newes from Italy, Germany, Hungary, Poland, Bohemia, France and the Low Countreys. It followed the format of the Dutch corantos and at first carried mostly business news, although gradually it expanded to include natural disasters, wars, and so forth. In 1641 reports from Parliament were issued for the first time. The first daily was the Daily Courant, founded by Samuel Buckley in March 1702. Magazines such as the Tatler also began to proliferate around this time; they offered opinions about current events. As demand for newspapers and news publications continued to increase, so did government restrictions, sometimes indirectly, through excessive taxes on printers, and sometimes directly, with dissenting presses being shut down entirely. After a brief period of relative freedom during the 1640s, when journalists could even criticize the king and hundreds of pamphlets and news sheets were seen in London, press censorship was reimposed by Oliver Cromwell in 1655. The same sort of control occurred in the British colonies. The first newspaper in North America, Publick Occurences, was published in September 1690 and was immediately shut down. The next colonial American newspaper, the Boston News-Letter, appeared in 1704 and had to submit itself to the British censors in order to continue publishing. It survived for the next seventy-two years by avoiding controversy and not criticizing the monarchy. Several newspapers that began in colonial times are still publishing today: the New Hampshire Gazette was founded in Portsmouth in 1756, and the Hartford [Connecticut] Courant began in 1764. European immigrants to North America from other countries also established newspapers. The first to appear, a German-language paper, was Philadelphische Zeitung (Philadelphian Newspaper), which was begun in 1732.

Print Media in the British Empire

Throughout the British Empire, English was the preferred language for journalism, since entrepreneurs from Great Britain founded most of the newspapers. This excluded everyone who could only read in the vernacular, but it did help any local journalists who were fluent in English to get hired. In Calcutta, India, James Augustus Hickey started the Bengal Gazette in January 1780. To help cover the expenses of publishing, he began taking advertisements, but the newspaper still lasted only two years, due in large part to Hickey’s controversial reporting about the governor-general. Even in a faraway place, the British government took a dim view of criticism by the press. Although the Bengal Gazette is regarded by some as the first Indian newspaper, other sources note that in 1777 a member of the Parsi community named Rustomji Kashaspathi founded a newspaper called the Bombay Courier. A few newspapers in local languages did begin to emerge in the 1800s, but the most influential newspapers were English-language papers. Among the best-known was the Bombay Times and Journal of Commerce, founded in 1838; today it is known as the Times of India, a name it began using in 1851.

In Canada the first newspaper appeared in March 1752; the Halifax (Nova Scotia) Gazette began as a two-page tabloid, with news from England, Europe, and other British colonies. Its founder was the printer John Bushell. Although it was published in Canada, it did not cover local births, deaths, or marriages until about 1769; most of what it printed at first was material aimed at government officials, merchants, and the military. More local in its focus was the Toronto Globe (today the Globe and Mail), founded by Scottish emigre George Brown in 1844. The Globe sent correspondents all over eastern Canada to cover the news. And in Montreal, the Gazette began in 1778 as a French-language newspaper, switched to a bilingual format, and finally became all English in 1822.

In Australia one of the first newspapers was the Sydney Gazette and New South Wales Advertiser, founded in 1803. Three British men who had worked there, Alfred Stephens, Frederick Stokes, and William McGarvie, went on to found the Sydney Herald (today the Sydney Morning Herald) in 1831. The Herald, originally a weekly and only four pages long, expanded and became a daily in 1840.

Cape Town, South Africa, had a newspaper as early as 1800; the founders of the Cape Town Gazette were Alexander Walker and John Robertson, and it published articles in both English and Afrikaans. There was no black newspaper in South Africa until 1884, when Imvo Zabantsundu (Xhosa: Native Opinion) appeared for the first time. Founded by black journalist John Tengo Jabavu, it published in the Xhosa language and English, and was unique in addressing current events and politics from a black perspective and in giving black poets and essayists a way to get their ideas into print.

Historical Censorship of Print Media

The excuse often given for government censorship of the press has been that journalism is unreliable, and in its formative years, there may have been some truth to this claim, since some of the news sheets were filled with unfounded rumors, and some writers used sensationalism to attract an audience. But the real problem for the ruling classes was that the press began taking sides in political issues. Many readers saw the newspapers as a way to learn perspectives that differed from the official version given by those in power. Then, as now, the powers-that-be sponsored “official” publications. The rulers often hoped theirs would be the only version, but in England, to give one good example, other publications developed, some of which questioned the government. There were ongoing tensions between the rulers and the publishers: rulers didn’t mind getting some positive publicity from a newspaper, such as when in 1622, King James I of Britain explained in print why he had decided to dissolve parliament. But monarchs often tried to shut down newspapers that they perceived as too critical. In France, printers and publishers were sometimes arrested and flogged for publications deemed seditious or defamatory. In at least one case, in England in 1584, a Catholic printer, William Carter, was sentenced to death because it was believed that an allegorical story he had written in one of his widely disseminated books was really an attack on the queen’s Protestant faith.

Despite the best efforts of various European monarchs to muzzle the press, journalists continued to make their opinions known, and as the years passed, reporters and columnists showed they could shape public opinion. In England the influence of the press grew so much that by the early 1800s, British journalists were being referred to as the “fourth estate,” in reference to the three classes (or estates) of society: the nobility, the clergy, and the common people. It was suggested that in addition to the original three, there should be added a fourth, the journalists, who were in some ways the most influential of all, since their telling of a story could bring praise or disapproval from thousands of people.

Mass Media, Freedom of the Press, and Sensationalism

The idea of freedom of the press was advocated by scholars and poets from at least as early as the poet John Milton’s famous Areopagitica: A Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed Printing to the Parliament of England, in 1644, but it wasn’t until the mid-to-late 1700s that any countries created laws to formally protect journalists. Scandinavia led the way in 1766, with Sweden being the first country to abolish censorship and introduce a law guaranteeing freedom of the press, followed by Denmark and Norway in 1770. Freedom of the press became part of the newly independent United States’ Bill of Rights—the first ten amendments to its constitution—which was ratified in 1791.

Earlier centuries had seen the occasional publication of unfounded rumors or sensationalist stories, but in the nineteenth century, as newspapers proliferated, so did some of those excesses. Perhaps the most disturbing was “yellow journalism.” Named after a character in a U.S. comic strip, the “Yellow Kid,” in its milder forms it was just a preoccupation with scandal, rumor, and sensationalism. The Canadian journalist James Creelman was well known in the late 1800s for his dramatic and hyperbolic writing. As a correspondent for several New York newspapers, he reported from dangerous places, while interviewing some of the most controversial newsmakers of his day in a “you are there” style. The style of writing was very exaggerated and filled with words that made it seem as if the writer was in mortal danger just for writing the story. Creelman was what his age would have considered shocking—when he wrote about atrocities during the Sino-Japanese war, for example, his narratives were so graphic that people could not believe such horrible things were true. He was among that era’s best known correspondents, and saw himself as a truth-teller. In England, William T. Stead, the publisher of London’s Pall Mall Gazette, reacted against what he saw as the blandness of the British press by creating a strategy to appeal to the working-class person rather than the educated elite. He began using screaming headlines and more illustrations, as well as actively crusading against a variety of social problems that affected the poor; for example, in the mid-1880s, the Gazette did a series on child prostitution, at that time called “white slavery,” showing how easy it was for poor children to be exploited. At that time standards were quite different, and even writing about prostitutes was considered in questionable taste. The pages of the Gazette enabled Stead to advocate for a number of causes, including women’s suffrage and his era’s antiwar movement. Yellow journalism was eventually seen as negative by the public when journalists began to compete with each other at being more sensational and more graphic—again, within the limitations of the era, in which “bad language” was not permitted no matter what.

Sensational reporting sold newspapers, but yellow journalism could also have serious consequences. In an era before the concept of objective reporting had been enshrined in the journalist’s vocabulary, many newspapers were unashamedly partisan. This could be a mixed blessing. In Hungary, for example, there was revolution in the air in 1848, as many Hungarians wanted independence from Austria. It was the press that led the charge, thanks in large part to Lajos Kossuth, a lawyer whose views were considered radical by those in power. A fiery orator and writer, Kossuth used his position as editor-in-chief of the underground Pesti Hirlap (Newspaper from Pest) to promote nationalism and lead the drive for independence. While encouraging nationalism had a positive result in this case, there were other occasions when stirring up nationalistic fervor did more harm than good. The Spanish-American war in 1898 was largely attributed to newspaper owner William Randolph Hearst, who encouraged his reporters to inflame the U.S. public to support a war that most modern historians agree need never have been fought.

Telegraphy and Wire Services as Mass Media

The mid-to-late 1800s saw further expansion of journalism throughout the world. Technology was partly responsible: Steam driven locomotives now carried people to other cities more quickly, which was good news for reporters trying to cover an assignment. Better news was the invention of the telegraph, which made communicating from distant points infinitely faster. In both Europe and North America, new companies were founded to serve as resources for gathering news. The first news agency was founded in 1832 by Charles-Louis Havas; named Agence Havas, it originally translated the newspapers from foreign countries but by 1835 expanded to cover events around the globe. The government continually monitored it, but Agence Havas became a reliable resource for French-language newspapers. It survives to this day under the name of Agence France Presse. In May 1848 the Associated Press (AP) opened in New York. Founded by David Hale and James Gordon Bennett, it offered its U.S.-affiliated newspapers access to news dispatches from all over North America. In 1858 AP was able to receive dispatches from Europe for the first time, via transoceanic cable.

As use of the telegraph expanded, it became possible for the newspapers to receive and disseminate news on the same day, even from distant colonial outposts. This contributed to the impact journalism had on a society that increasingly sought more information about world events. In Europe, in October 1851, a German immigrant working in London, Paul Julius von Reuter, began sending stock market quotations between London and Paris via cable. Prior to telegraphy, he had used the so-called pigeon post, sending the information via carrier pigeons. His new company, Reuters, quickly expanded, offering newsgathering services similar to those of the Associated Press. Members of the British press were among his first customers, but soon Reuters had affiliates throughout Europe. In 1865, Reuters was the first European news service to have the story that President Lincoln had been assassinated. Other European countries also established their own news-gathering organizations, often because of demands from businesses for global information that might affect them. Outside of Europe, the new technology was slow to arrive, so newspapers such as Australia’s Sydney Herald still relied on news from ships until transoceanic cables were successfully laid and telegraph connections were established in major Australian cities, between 1858 and the mid-1870s.

A lack of modern telegraphy was also a problem in China. The Qing government appeared not to see the need for telegraph cable until it fought a war with Russia in the 1870s. Lack of speedy communication hampered treaty negotiations and led to several unfavorable treaties. The public was outraged, and this provided the impetus to begin expansion: from 1884 to 1899, 27,500 kilometers of cable was laid. The encroachment of other countries on China’s sovereignty and territory led to a feeling of nationalism that manifested itself in the establishment of many newspapers and magazines from the 1860s through the 1880s. In the rest of the world, certain Latin American countries laid down telegraph lines in the 1850s, as did the Ottoman Empire, and lines were laid down in European colonies as well.

Radio and Television as Mass Media

The 1900s brought yet another dramatic change in journalism, as a result of another technological advance. The inventors Guglielmo Marconi and Nikola Tesla were both experimenting with wireless communication, or what would later be called radio. It is generally agreed upon that the first broadcast was an experiment done by a Canadian engineer, Reginald Fessenden, in Massachusetts, but the exact date is not certain and is in fact the subject of much debate: some sources say it was on Christmas Eve 1906, whereas others place it earlier.

Some of the earliest commercial radio stations worldwide were operated by corporations, with the hope of selling merchandise or radio equipment. In North America, one of the first stations was XWA (later CFCF) in Montreal, owned by the Marconi Wireless Telegraph Company; it went on the air in December 1919. Another early station, KDKA in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, was owned by Westinghouse, which manufactured electronic equipment, while another, 8MK (later WWJ) in Detroit, Michigan, was owned by a newspaper, the Detroit News. At least one early North American station—WIAE in Vinton, Iowa—was owned in 1922 by a woman, Marie Zimmerman. Mexico got its first station in December 1923, when CYL took to the air, owned jointly by two businessmen, Raul and Luis Azcarraga, and the Mexico City newspaper El Universal (The Universal). Puerto Rico’s first commercial station, WKAQ, went on the air from San Juan in 1922, started by Joaquin Agusty, who was well known for his work with amateur radio. And one of the first radio stations in Cuba was PWX, owned by the Cuban Telephone Company in Havana; American radio fans reported hearing its powerful signal in 1922.

News was broadcast at a few stations in 1921 and 1922, and live sporting events were also broadcast during that time. But the staple of American programming was music. At first, because many of the owners were from the upper class, they felt their duty was to educate and to offer “good” music (opera and classical, as opposed to jazz, which they felt was vulgar), but gradually the public demand for dance and popular music won out at most stations. Radio was unique because it was the first mass medium to bring people an event as it was happening, and it also provided the poor and people of color access to places from which they were often excluded. With radio, people could hear the greatest vocalists, learn from famous professors, or just enjoy the hit songs in the privacy of the home. Radio helped to create a common culture, as certain songs or certain performers became popular across the country.

Early radio broke down borders in other ways too. Signals carried great distances, and listeners competed to see who could receive stations from the farthest away. In 1921 Eunice Randall, the first women announcer in Massachusetts, told a newspaper that she had received fan mail from people who heard her in London. Radio magazines such as Radio News began printing lists of stations from foreign countries, so that listeners could write down the ones they heard. And it was not just in North America that radio changed people’s lives. Radio News reported in September 1925 how broadcasting was affecting the peasants in an impoverished Russian village. A radio and loudspeakers had been set up in a public listening room so that people could gather and hear the news of the world; crowds eagerly awaited these broadcasts so they could find out what was happening outside the confines of their village. Meanwhile, the government had just begun permitting private ownership of radio sets in Moscow, and already over 50,000 receivers were in use. By the mid-1920s, many European cities were hosting radio expositions at which the public could meet radio broadcasters and see the newest radio receiving equipment.

By late 1926 the United States’ first national network was on the air—the National Broadcasting Company, or NBC. It was able to offer its affiliates excellent programs with famous performers because the network was entirely supported by advertisers, who often chose the talent and decided what got on the air—a prerogative that resulted in women being relegated to stereotypic roles and minorities seldom being hired at all. By the end of the 1920s, few of the small entrepreneurs who had put the first stations on the air were able to afford to operate a radio station.

In many countries it was the government that operated the stations, which were supported by a receiver fee that listeners had to pay in order to own a radio receiving set. Great Britain was one such country. The British Broadcasting Company was founded in 1922, and the first station, 2LO, went on the air in November of that year. Right from the beginning, government interests tried to limit how much news could be broadcast, fearing that radio could influence the public’s political views; newspapers also lobbied the government to restrict radio from doing news at all, since print journalists saw radio as competition.

As in Britain, in France, Denmark, and Germany the government quickly established control of broadcasting in the early 1920s. In at least one place, radio broadcasting was entirely controlled by the Catholic Church: Vatican City’s first station was built in late 1930; the station would enable the pope spread his message worldwide.

In Argentina, a commercial station, Radio Argentina, was licensed in November 1923, and a high powered station, LPZ in Buenos Aires, was on the air in 1924. Argentina was also an excellent market for American-made radio receivers. In Peru, as early as July 1921, a government-run shortwave station in Lima was put on the air at the request of President Augusto Leguia; it mainly broadcast weather reports and other information useful to the military and the police. The first commercial station in Peru was probably OAX in Lima, which went on the air in June 1925, broadcasting entertainment and educational programming. Many stations in Latin America were run by private companies, and although they were sometimes subjected to government censorship, in general, they were free to broadcast.

Radio broadcasting came slowly to Asia. In fact, there were fewer than thirty stations in all of Asia in 1927, whereas in North America, there were hundreds. In China, American and British businessmen seem to have set up the earliest radio stations; one of the first was in Shanghai in 1922. But the government did not allow radio broadcasting to become widespread; by 1931 there were only eighteen stations operating in the entire country. A national radio service, operated by the Communist party, did not begin until 1940. In Hong Kong, then a British colony, the government was equally cautious: amateur radio fans proposed a station as early as 1923, but it wasn’t approved till 1928. Hong Kong only had that one station till the mid 1930s. In contrast, radio was welcomed in Japan, where the amateurs had been demanding it since the early 1920s. Tokyo’s JOAK was the first commercial station, going on the air in March 1925 and quickly followed by stations in Osaka and Nagoya. Nippon Hoso Kyokai (the Japan Broadcasting Association, or NHK) was established as the official national broadcasting company of Japan in 1926. Modeling itself after the BBC, it took control of the three stations on the air and continued to expand throughout the country.

During the 1930s, NHK was also involved with experiments in early television, as was the Soviet Union, which conducted experiments with television as early as 1931. There were TV broadcasts in the Netherlands in 1935, and Great Britain inaugurated its national service in November 1936: the first British television broadcast featured a song called “Magic Rays of Light,” which certainly expressed the amazement people who witnessed it must have felt. Even prior to the establishment of electronic television, Great Britain was home to very primitive mechanical stations that broadcast sporadically in the late 1920s. A Scottish-born inventor, John Logie Baird, is regarded as the father of mechanical television in Great Britain, and he received considerable publicity despite the poor quality of the picture his system produced. In the United States, the inventor Charles Francis Jenkins was the father of mechanical television, and he too supervised some stations in the late 1920s. But it was the development of a far superior technology, electronic television (credited in the United States sometimes to an independent West-Coast inventor named Philo Farnsworth and sometimes to a corporate inventor who worked for RCA, Vladimir Zworykin), that eventually led to the United States’ successful television industry.

Colonialism played a major role in the history of international broadcasting. Colonial governments set up radio stations (and later TV stations) and controlled their content, as they had with newspapers. Even stations that were set up as noncommercial were operated by and often benefited corporate interests. The British Marconi Company, which wanted to sell receiving sets, attempted to open stations in Bombay (Mumbai) and Calcutta, India, as early as 1922. An amateur organization in India, the Radio Club of Bombay, did some programming beginning in 1923, but the first commercial stations did not begin till 1927. When it became evident that World War II was on the horizon, interest grew in expanding the radio broadcasts to give the public more news and entertainment during difficult times. But a national service (All India Radio) did not flourish till India achieved independence in 1947. And in Central America, the United Fruit Company had great influence on what was broadcast, making sure news reports were favorable and nobody challenged the company’s control over the banana industry. Even under colonial administration, nationalism could lead to conflicts about what should or should not be broadcast. In the British mandate of Palestine (present-day Israel), the British set up the Palestine Broadcasting Service in March 1936. Although BBC announcers trained the staff and programming was offered in Hebrew, Arabic, and English, neither Jews nor Arabs were happy with what was on the air. The same problem occurred in a number of other ethnically divided countries, where ethnic tensions played out in a struggle for control of the country’s radio stations.

The Mass Media Divide: Comparing Rich and Poor Nations

One organization that has been monitoring trends in international media is UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), which held its first international conference on communication policies in 1974 in Costa Rica. At that conference, a declaration was issued, urging that in crafting their communications policies, nations should take into account national realities but also the promotion of free expression of thought and respect for individual and social rights. In subsequent conferences, declarations were made about the necessity of protecting the rights of journalists and giving all people—not just the rich and the powerful—access to information. An international commission, with members from fifteen countries, convened in 1977 and began issuing reports on the state of the media. Their first report, Many Voices, One World, was issued in 1980 and was the first in-depth study of the media in both rich and poor countries. It identified disparities in access to media: in Africa, for example, 1976 statistics showed that only 3 percent of the population owned a radio, which was troubling because “[r]adio is of vital importance to developing countries because of [the] low penetration of newspapers into rural areas and . . . because of illiteracy on a mass scale” (MacBride 1980, 122–127). The commission also identified the countries that had kept pace with advances in communication technology—Japan, for example, composed only 5 percent of Asia’s population yet it had “66 percent of the press circulation, 46 percent of the radio receivers, 63 percent of the television sets and 89 percent of the telephones” (MacBride 1980, 122–127), according to 1979 research. The study found that while India had 835 different newspapers, eight African countries had no daily newspaper at all, while others had only a weekly or a biweekly that was not distributed outside of main centers of population. Even in developed countries that had radio or newspapers or television, most of the coverage was about what was going on in the biggest cities. And although media consolidation was not the issue in 1980 that it is today, there was already evidence that a handful of elites controlled the communication in many countries. As the commission noted, issuing a declaration about press freedom or equal access did not mean that those goals would be reached or that governments would cooperate.

Since that first UNESCO report, more countries now have technology, and a growing number have Internet newspapers. Perhaps the first in Africa was the Mail and Guardian Online, started in South Africa in 1994. Saudi Arabia began an English-language service, ArabNews Online, around 1998; it was an offshoot of the English-language daily newspaper, Arab News, which had been established in 1975. What the average Saudi has access to remains limited. The ability to communicate in English was desirable primarily for the elite, who were taught the language in private schools so they could engage in commerce with the West. The average person mainly went to religious schools, but the educated elite then and now were taught English. The fact that the on-line Arab News publishes in English provides it with the ability to reach out to educated Saudi expatriates as well as to American and British diplomats. The ruling class and the clerics in Saudi Arabia at first opposed modernizations such as radio, which by all accounts did not start till the 1930s—the clerics only accepted radio when King Abd al Aziz tied its use to the religious purpose of airing scriptural lessons and teaching illiterate people more about their religion. For those who have access to it, the Internet can provide a means of resisting tyranny. Women human rights activists in Afghanistan founded RAWA (Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan) and made use of online communication and a website to mobilize supporters worldwide during the repressive Taliban regime of the 1990s. Even in countries in which the average citizen lacks access to the Internet, exiles are often able to use it to spread the word of what is happening in their country. It has become harder for repressive regimes to control information or prevent it from being disseminated, but it can still be done: in Burma (Myanmar), the autocratic government has been successful in keeping dissenting voices from being heard, and in Iran, when protesters questioned the legitimacy of the elections in 2009, the government banned Western TV and radio reporters, and shut down most internet sites, while limiting access to social networking sites.

Mass Media and Violence

Being a journalist can be a dangerous occupation. The International Press Institute in Vienna stated that in 2003, sixty-four journalists were killed; nineteen of them died in Iraq and nine in Columbia. Also in 2003, the Committee to Protect Journalists named Iraq, Cuba, Zimbabwe, Turkmenistan, and Bangladesh as the most unsafe places for journalists. According to the CPJ, while Iraq was a war zone and any reporting from a war zone can be dangerous, the other countries had repressive governments that lock up and in some cases torture journalists whose opinions they do not like. By 2008, conditions for journalists remained unchanged—once again, sixty-four journalists were killed, with Iraq and Pakistan having the most deaths. In some countries, journalists have just disappeared, usually after reporting on a story the government disliked, or uncovering the activities of organized crime. That was the case in Mexico is 2007 when investigative reporter Rodolfo Rincon Taracena vanished after reporting on local drug trafficking. Reporters covering drug-related crime in Latin America were also frequently in danger: in Peru in 2006, forty journalists were attacked, and in Columbia, three were killed and many others had to go into hiding. In Haiti, where news is still spread by teledjol (word of mouth) and illiteracy is rampant, radio remains the most important mass medium: according to some reports, about 92 percent of Haitians own a radio and the country has over three hundred stations. For that reason, the government has sometimes tried to suppress the country’s radio stations: Jean Dominique, director of a popular language station, denounced the government and accused it of rigging the elections; he was gunned down in April 2000. There are reports that Haitian radio stations have gradually gained more freedom since then, although journalists have admitted to practicing self-censorship. In some countries, the media have also been used by those in power to incite the population to violence. One especially egregious example of this occurred during the Rwandan genocide of 1994, when a government radio station, RTML, encouraged Hutus to murder members of the Tutsi minority. Radio broadcasts referred to Tutsis as “vermin” and “cockroaches” and repeatedly demonized them. Transcripts show that some announcers even pointed out where Tutsis were living and encouraged Hutus to kill them.

The Future of Mass Media

In the Muslim world, the arrival of the cable news television station Al-Jazeera (Arabic for The Peninsula) in 1996 has been dramatic. Critics have called the Quatar-based station sensationalistic and biased and have accused it of stirring up anti-Jewish and anti-American sentiments in the Arab world. But many Muslims counter that it is the first network to report from a pro-Arab point of view. Unlike CNN or Fox, American cable networks with a decidedly American and Western viewpoint, Al-Jazeera has called American forces in Iraq “occupiers” and referred to those who were fighting against the Americans not as “militants” but rather as “resistance fighters” or “martyrs.” Al-Jazeera has grown in size and influence in the years since its founding; since 2003, it has competition from Dubai-based Al-Arabiya, which also offers news from a pro-Arab point of view, but is perceived by Western observers to be more moderate in its coverage. It will be interesting to see the direction these stations take in the years to come. Cable television has become a growing presence in a growing number of Arab countries in the first decade of the twenty-first century. And while many Arab stations, both radio and TV, are religious in nature, there are also stations that broadcast a wider variety of programming, including popular movies. One example is ART (the Arab Radio and Television Network), which was founded in Saudi Arabia back in 1993.

While globalization has affected how business is done worldwide, it has also affected the mass media. In the United States, deregulation of broadcast media began in the 1980s under President Ronald Reagan, culminating with the 1996 Telecommunications Act, signed by President Bill Clinton. The Telecom Act lifted restrictions on how many stations could be owned by one company. Rather than encouraging competition as proponents claimed it would, the end result was consolidation of power into the hands of a few giant media conglomerates, several of which (Clear Channel Communications, which at one point owned over a thousand radio stations and a major concert promotion company; and News Corporation, owner of cable channel Fox News as well as numerous newspapers and magazines) had ties to conservative politics and the Republican party. In the buildup to the invasion of Iraq, critics accused these conglomerates of stifling dissenting views and only broadcasting coverage in favor of going to war.

Similar media consolidation occurred in Canada, where in the period from 1985 to 2000, consolidation occurred in dramatic fashion. By 2000, 68 percent of all television stations were controlled by five giant companies, and one conglomerate, the Hollinger Corporation, soon owned or had a financial interest in 80 percent of Canada’s daily newspapers. Eventually, financial problems caused Hollinger to sell off many of those newspapers, but they were bought up by another conglomerate, CanWest.

Media consolidation is also a fact of life in parts of Europe. In England, there has been increasing pressure on the government to relax media ownership laws. One major proponent of removing the limitations is Rupert Murdoch; in addition to owning the American conglomerate News Corporation, he also owns several British newspapers (including the Times of London and a tabloid, the Sun) and a satellite programming service called BSkyB (British Sky Broadcasting), as well as media properties in Australia. Murdoch has been accused by his critics of censoring news stories that are contrary to his political views. Meanwhile, in Italy, the controversial prime minister Silvio Berlusconi, also had ties to media ownership; companies owned by his family dominate Italian television, and he has attempted to pass legislation that would permit his conglomerate to expand its ownership of newspapers. He has also used his influence to make sure the state-run broadcaster RAI is controlled by a board of directors that is favorable to him. Critics have accused him of using his wealth to manipulate media coverage, in order to avoid having his questionable financial dealings scrutinized.

In other countries too, a similar trend towards consolidation can be seen. Where media were at one time comprised of government-run monopolies, the new concern is that commercial media conglomerates are stifling opposing voices in the same way that the state-run media once did.

There are some hopeful media signs in countries where repression used to be a part of life. After the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991, an era of comparative freedom of the press began in Russia. While the press was reined in somewhat by the government of President Vladimir Putin, who was in office (2000– 2008), it is still far more free than it was in the era of Soviet rule. But being a journalist in Russia can still be dangerous: the Committee to Protect Journalists notes that when journalists are murdered there, the killers are seldom if ever brought to justice. The news is more positive for journalists in Haiti. Radio stations that were shut down by the government have quietly reopened since the ouster of President Jean-Bertrand Aristide in 2004. And in Rwanda a new radio service promotes not hatred but friendship and entertainment. Similar to pop music radio stations in the United States, Rwanda Radio in Kigali has opportunities for listeners to call in, a morning talk show, modern pop music, and even a children’s trivia contest in which the winners get to talk on the air. Young and articulate announcers offer listeners helpful information about health, and they also teach tolerance. Where radio had once been part of the problem, it is now trying to be part of the healing process.

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Vipond, M. (1992). Listening in: The first decade of broadcasting in Canada, 1922–1932. Montreal, Canada: McGill Queen’s University Press.

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58 Mass Communication Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best mass communication topic ideas & essay examples, 🔍 most interesting mass communication topics to write about, 🔎 simple & easy mass communication essay titles.

Movies as a Medium of Mass Communication Over the decades of its development, the phenomenon of a movie has changed significantly, especially with the introduction of new genres and the discovery of new ways of conveying a particular idea visually.
India Movie Industry as a Medium of Mass Communication India’s Ministry of Information and Broadcasting is therefore charged with the development and regulation of the broadcasting, print, film and other media on behalf of the state.
Telegraph and Its Impacts in Mass Communication The invention of electricity was very instrumental as it led to the discovery of electric telegraphy by William and Charles in the 19th century.
Ethical Issues in Mass Communication and Advertising The following are some of the primary ethical issues that mass communication and advertising need to observe in modern society where media plays a crucial role in shaping public opinion.
Larry King: The Pioneer of Mass Communication The ‘Numbers Guy,’ as he was referred to by callers while hosting the Larry King Show, makes one of the greatest broadcasters in media history despite not having taken a course in mass communication. Larry […]
Social Media as a Component of Mass Communication The reasons for such a claim are justified and refer to different opportunities that social media and the Internet give their users. During that time, social media helped me to stay aware of the current […]
E-Media Fast: Mass Communication Theory The level of my media usage had risen to a point that I could not spend a day without the use of any of the media sources.
Mass Communication Law and Ethics As the hotel employee did not clean up the water out of a fish tank that resulted in an accident, the hotel was to be responsible for that situation.
The Study of Mass Communication and Popular Culture The contributions of the French sociologist emile Durkheim to the formation of sociology are rather sufficient, as the scientist has studied the ways in which societies could maintain their integrity and coherence in the present […]
Global Mass Communication: Web Television The Web TV and IPTV are a powerful enabling force that enables the use of similar ideas in different corners of the world.
Mass Communication Impact on Modern language Within the frames of another tradition, the impact of mass communication and mass culture on language and mass consciousness is analyzed in a different critical way.
The History of Mass Communication: New Opportunities and Challenges for Society In the history of mass communication, it is possible to distinguish three main stages: ethic-legal paradoxes, techno-legal time-gap, and surveillance society, The new media is characterized by technological changes and changes in ideas and ideals […]
Mass Media Communication: Personal Analysis Finally, when I do the same in the kitchen in the morning, I am occupied with preparing and eating my breakfast; therefore, television serves as a background and I cannot be focused on the information […]
Global Music: Mass Communication The era of globalization had a dramatic impact not only on the economic development of the countries but also implied cultural exchange while distributing national music around the world.
Mass Communication and Public Policy One example of the websites that help to exchange ideas but negatively is the In the real sense, there several public interests in conflict when the information about the funding of a politician is disclosed […]
What is “Two-step Flow”? What Implications Does It Have for Our Understanding of Mass Communication? It should be known that there has been an implication of our understanding of mass communication as a result of this theory based on the fact that it has redefined our predictions on the influence […]
The Implication of Chaffee and Metzger’s Article “The End of Mass Communication” With the development of computer-based communication technologies, the university should focus on this issue in determining the impact of technological changes on mass communication and the need to change the courses offered at the Lindenwood […]
Americans: Global Awareness and Mass Communication
How Technology and Convergence Has Changed the Face of Mass Communication
Basic Ideas and Theories of Mass Communication
Bringing Cultural Change Through Mass Communication
Criteria for Professional Journalism and Mass Communication Programs
The Uses and Impacts of Mass Communication
Celebrity Phenomenon in an Era of Mass Communication
Debating Mass Communication During the Rise and Fall of Broadcasting
Demystifying Mass Communication Majors Into the Magazine Industry
Digital History: Leading the Rise of Mass Communication
How Mass Communication Approach Can Change Into Perspective
Improving Physical Fitness Through Methods of Mass Communication
Incorporating Mass Communication, Philosophy, and Sociology in the Education of an Athlete
Internet Addiction Between Mass Communication and Nursing Students of Segi University
Language and Mass Communication: Omnivore’s Dilemma
Mass Communication and Its Effects on the Audience
Linking Mass Communication and Academic Art
The Relations Between Mass Communication and Culture
Mass Communication Between People and Communities
Relations Between Mass Communication and Social Policies
The Parallels Between Mass Communication and Graphic Design
Historical Analysis of Mass Communication During World War II
The Link Between Mass Communication, Media, and Culture
Mass Communication, Propaganda, and Persuasion Controlling America
Relationship With Smartphones: Mass Communication
Mass Communication Theory and Practice: An Overview
Social Learning Theory: Are Children Being Corrupted by the Mass Communication Industry?
Experience in Using Social Media for Mass Communication
Sustainable Consumption and Mass Communication: A German Experiment
The African Americans Throughout the History of Mass Communication
The History and Evolution of Technology and Mass Communication
Theories, Concepts, and Models in Mass Communication Theory Foundations and Future
The Uses and Gratifications of Research of Mass Communication
Understanding and Evaluating Mass Communication Theory
The Role and Impact of Mass Communication on Sexuality in TV Programs
Review of the Origin and Evolution of Mass Communication and Technology
Mass Communication and Technological Advancement in “How Are Media Born”
Synopsis of Dynamics of Mass Communication
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Our political debates may not be as antagonistic as we think, study shows

image shows a phone screen with speech bubbles filled with *$((*&@($ representing obscenities

Spend any time scrolling through social media or news sites and it feels like America is a nation in constant argument. Off-hand remarks often spark fierce screaming matches. Partisanship is up, Gallup tells us , while trust in institutions is down .

However, a new study co-authored by Berkeley Haas Assistant Professor Erica R. Bailey suggests this perception may not accurately reflect the nature and frequency of political debates among everyday Americans. In three studies involving nearly 3,000 participants, researchers found most debates occur not with strangers on social media but rather among family and friends. Moreover, participants often felt positive after such discussions

“We have these misperceptions because of algorithmic amplification of negative media and negative interactions on social media coupled with the fact that we tend to really remember negative information,” says Bailey. “It creates this perception that we’re all just out there fighting with strangers.”

In fact, one study with a representative sample of nearly 2,000 Americans showed that people overestimate how frequently others engage in debates—and this misperception is especially pronounced for debates with strangers online. This false perception has psychological costs, the researchers say, fueling increased feelings of hopelessness about the future of America.

“Our findings suggest that Americans may experience a false reality about the landscape of debate which can unnecessarily undermine their hope about the future,” the researchers wrote in the study, published in the journal Scientific Reports and co-authored by Michael W. White , Sheena S. Iyengar , and Modupe Akinola of Columbia Business School.

Difficult and nuanced conversations

Bailey says the genesis of the project was reflecting on her own experience. “When I think about who I talk about hot-button issues with, it’s my colleagues and friends,” she says. “Engaging online feels like a waste of time. Why would I have a difficult and nuanced conversation with someone I don’t know or trust?”

Bailey, who studies authenticity, says online debates often feel artificial, with people less willing to openly share their personal experiences and more often just trying to make a point. But while we have a daily ringside seat to the most heated online debates, we lack line-of-sight into people’s private kitchen-table conversations—and these are harder for researchers to observe, recreate, and measure.

Perceptions of ‘typical’ debates

In their first study, the researchers asked 282 participants to freely recall a recent debate they had witnessed or participated in. About half of the participants described debates they observed online, and recounted that these interactions skewed more negative than positive. Interestingly, the respondents believed these instances were representative of typical debates, highlighting a perception that debates—particularly online—are generally seen as negative.

Personal experiences with debate

The second phase included two studies delving into personal debate experiences. The first involved 215 people in a behavioral science research lab, while the second included 526 individuals recruited online. Participants in both groups were asked about the topics they debated over the past year, who they debated with, and how they felt afterward. They were also asked to choose from a list of twenty common topics—including climate change, gun control, gender identity issues, and reparations for slavery—which ones they had debated.

The results revealed that reproductive rights and vaccines were the most common topics, while other contentious issues, such as policing and immigration, were debated less frequently. Most of the topics were debated by less than half of participants. Contrary to the popular belief of hostile online interactions, participants said the majority of their debates occurred with family, friends, and other close contacts.

In terms of emotional impact, online participants reported that their average post-debate feeling was positive, suggesting that discussions, even on divisive topics, often ended on a constructive note. The lab participants’ feelings were neutral, neither overwhelmingly positive nor negative.

“That was surprising to me, since I was not expecting for people to report feeling positive after a debate,” Bailey says. “That suggests that at least on some topics, people are better at finding a compromise or at least ending on a positive note.”

Measuring misperceptions and their impact

The third study was an investigation into how Americans perceive debates compared to their actual experiences. About 2,000 Americans in a nationally representative sample were randomly assigned to either self-report their own debate experiences or to predict how often others engage in debates.

The results were striking. Across almost all categories, people significantly overestimated the frequency of debates, especially online debates involving strangers (the exception was in-person debates with family members). In addition, this overestimation was strongly linked to a sense of hopelessness about the future of America.

Implications

The research highlights a critical gap between perception and reality. “Taken together, these findings suggest that the ‘typical’ debate seems substantively different than two strangers typing at one another from behind their computer screens,” the researchers write. This misperception could be due to the visibility and virality of negative content on social media platforms, where extreme views often get amplified over moderate or conciliatory tones.

Second, the findings suggest that these misperceptions could be contributing to broader societal despair regarding the political climate and the future of democracy in America. By assuming that debates are overwhelmingly negative and frequent, people may feel a sense of futility about political engagement and discourse. (The researchers cautioned that this connection was largely correlational.)

Lastly, the research points to the need for interventions that not only make debates more productive but also adjust public perceptions about political debate. Educating the public about the actual dynamics of debates could help mitigate feelings of hopelessness and encourage more constructive and hopeful engagement with political processes.

Read the paper:

Americans misperceive the frequency and format of political debate By Erica Bailey, Michael W. White, Sheena S. Iyengar, and Modupe Akinola Scientific Reports , March 2024

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Astrophysics > Astrophysics of Galaxies

Title: the variation of the galaxy-wide imf for low-mass stars: modeling and observational insights.

Abstract: The Stellar Initial Mass Function (IMF) characterizes the mass distribution of newly formed stars in various cosmic environments, serving as a fundamental assumption in astrophysical research. Recent findings challenge the prevalent notion of a universal and static IMF, proposing instead that the IMF's shape is contingent upon the star formation environment. In this study, we analyze the galaxy-wide variation of the IMF for low-mass stars in both dwarf and massive galaxies with diverse observational methods. Despite systematic discrepancies between different approaches, an IMF model with a metallicity-dependent slope for the low-mass stars aligns with the majority of observations, indicating a high degree of uniformity in the star formation processes across the universe. We also emphasize the need for a more comprehensive understanding of the variation of the low-mass IMF, considering measurement biases and factors beyond metallicity.

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Advanced Materials and Technologies for Sustainable Development of Underground Resources

Acoustic emission characteristics and fracture mechanism of sandstone in open-pit mines under different types of cyclic loads Provisionally Accepted

1 Xi’an University of Science and Technology, China
2 Other, China

The final, formatted version of the article will be published soon.

Rock mass is one of the most important load-bearing media in geotechnical engineering. It has been continually vulnerable to geological tectonic movements, natural calamities, and human excavation activities. Its inherent weak surfaces such as primary pores, joints, and fissures have resulted in varying damage degrees. In mining operations, the damaged rock mass has a variety of negative impacts on the stability of its overlying structures and is frequently disturbed by the load. To study the damage law of rock mass under cyclic loading, in this paper, an acoustic emission (AE) device was employed to monitor the rock under the action of two types of cyclic loads: the variable upper and lower pre-loads, and the fixed upper and lower pre-loads. The damage of the loaded rock was split into three stages in this research, based on the features of the AE signals of the rock under uniaxial load, and the damage evolution of the loaded rock was analyzed in distinct stages. The AE signals of the rock under cyclic loading were mainly emitted in the first loading stage. When the stress did not exceed the maximum stress value in the stress history of the loaded rock, few new AE event was generated in the loaded rock. After the low-frequency cyclic static load, the AE signals varied with the load-bearing stress of the rock during the whole process from initial loading to failure, which was consistent with the characteristics of the AE signals of the loaded rock. The research results can be adapted to rock mass in open-pit mines stability analysis and risk prediction while providing some references for the early warning and danger relief of rock masses in engineering.

Keywords: acoustic emission, cyclic loading, damage rock, rock mechanics, Fracture mode

Received: 18 Apr 2024; Accepted: 14 May 2024.

Copyright: © 2024 Zhang, Zhang and Jiang. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) or licensor are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

* Correspondence: Dr. Ling Zhang, Other, Beijing, China

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How Biden Adopted Trump’s Trade War With China

The president has proposed new barriers to electric vehicles, steel and other goods..

This transcript was created using speech recognition software. While it has been reviewed by human transcribers, it may contain errors. Please review the episode audio before quoting from this transcript and email [email protected] with any questions.

From “The New York Times,” I’m Sabrina Tavernise, and this is “The Daily.”

[MUSIC PLAYING]

Donald Trump upended decades of American policy when he started a trade war with China. Many thought that President Biden would reverse those policies. Instead, he’s stepping them up. Today, my colleague, Jim Tankersley, explains.

It’s Monday, May 13.

Jim, it’s very nice to have you in the studio.

It’s so great to be here, Sabrina. Thank you so much.

So we are going to talk today about something I find very interesting and I know you’ve been following. We’re in the middle of a presidential campaign. You are an economics reporter looking at these two candidates, and you’ve been trying to understand how Trump and Biden are thinking about our number one economic rival, and that is China.

As we know, Trump has been very loud and very clear about his views on China. What about Biden?

Well, no one is going to accuse President Biden of being as loud as former President Trump. But I think he’s actually been fairly clear in a way that might surprise a lot of people about how he sees economic competition with China.

We’re going after China in the wrong way. China is stealing intellectual property. China is conditioning —

And Biden has, kind of surprisingly, sounded a lot, in his own Joe Biden way, like Trump.

They’re not competing. They’re cheating. They’re cheating. And we’ve seen the damage here in America.

He has been very clear that he thinks China is cheating in trade.

The bottom line is I want fair competition with China, not conflict. And we’re in a stronger position to win the economic competition of the 21st century against China or anyone else because we’re investing in America and American workers again. Finally.

And maybe the most surprising thing from a policy perspective is just how much Biden has built on top of the anti-China moves that Trump made and really is the verge of his own sort of trade war with China.

Interesting. So remind us, Jim, what did Trump do when he actually came into office? We, of course, remember Trump really talking about China and banging that drum hard during the campaign, but remind us what he actually did when he came into office.

Yeah, it’s really instructive to start with the campaign, because Trump is talking about China in some very specific ways.

We have a $500 billion deficit, trade deficit, with China. We’re going to turn it around. And we have the cards. Don’t forget —

They’re ripping us off. They’re stealing our jobs.

They’re using our country as a piggy bank to rebuild China, and many other countries are doing the same thing. So we’re losing our good jobs, so many.

The economic context here is the United States has lost a couple of million jobs in what was called the China shock of the early 2000s. And Trump is tapping into that.

But when the Chinese come in, and they want to make great trade deals — and they make the best trade deals, and not anymore. When I’m there, we turn it around, folks. We turn it around. We have —

And what he’s promising as president is that he’s going to bring those jobs back.

I’ll be the greatest jobs president that God ever created. I’ll take them back from China, from Japan.

And not just any jobs, good-paying manufacturing jobs, all of it — clothes, shoes, steel, all of these jobs that have been lost that American workers, particularly in the industrial Midwest, used to do. Trump’s going to bring them back with policy meant to rebalance the trade relationship with China to get a better deal with China.

So he’s saying China is eating our lunch and has been for decades. That’s the reason why factory workers in rural North Carolina don’t have work. It’s those guys. And I’m going to change that.

Right. And he likes to say it’s because our leaders didn’t cut the right deal with them, so I’m going to make a better deal. And to get a better deal, you need leverage. So a year into his presidency, he starts taking steps to amass leverage with China.

And so what does that look like?

Just an hour ago, surrounded by a hand-picked group of steelworkers, President Trump revealed he was not bluffing.

It starts with tariffs. Tariffs are taxes that the government imposes on imports.

Two key global imports into America now face a major new barrier.

Today, I’m defending America’s national security by placing tariffs on foreign imports of steel and aluminum.

And in this case, it’s imports from a lot of different countries, but particularly China.

Let’s take it straight to the White House. The president of the United States announcing new trade tariffs against China. Let’s listen in.

This has been long in the making. You’ve heard —

So Trump starts, in 2018, this series of tariffs that he’s imposing on all sorts of things — washing machines, solar panels, steel, aluminum. I went to Delaware to a lighting store at that time, I remember, where basically everything they sold came from China and was subject to the Trump tariffs, because that’s where lighting was made now.

Interesting.

Hundreds of billions of dollars of Chinese goods now start falling under these Trump tariffs. The Chinese, of course, don’t take this lying down.

China says it is not afraid of a trade war with the US, and it’s fighting back against President Trump with its own tariffs on US goods.

They do their own retaliatory tariffs. Now American exports to China cost more for Chinese consumers. And boom, all of a sudden, we are in the midst of a full-blown trade war between the United States and Beijing.

Right. And that trade war was kind of a shock because for decades, politicians had avoided that kind of policy. It was the consensus of the political class in the United States that there should not be tariffs like that. It should be free trade. And Trump just came in and blew up the consensus.

Yeah. And Sabrina, I may have mentioned this once or 700 times before on this program, but I talk to a lot of economists in my job.

Yeah, it’s weird. I talk to a lot of economists. And in 2018 when this started, there were very, very, very few economists of any political persuasion who thought that imposing all these tariffs were a good idea. Republican economists in particular, this is antithetical to how they think about the world, which is low taxes, free trade. And even Democratic economists who thought they had some problems with the way free trade had been conducted did not think that Trump’s “I’m going to get a better deal” approach was going to work. And so there was a lot of criticism at the time, and a lot of politicians really didn’t like it, a lot of Democrats, many Republicans. And it all added up to just a real, whoa, I don’t think this is going to work.

So that begs the question, did it?

Well, it depends on what you mean by work. Economically, it does not appear to have achieved what Trump wanted. There’s no evidence yet in the best economic research that’s been done on this that enormous amounts of manufacturing jobs came back to the United States because of Trump’s tariffs. There was research, for example, on the tariffs on washing machines. They appear to have helped a couple thousand jobs, manufacturing jobs be created in the United States, but they also raised the price of washing machines for everybody who bought them by enough that each additional job that was created by those tariffs effectively cost consumers, like, $800,000 per job.

There’s like lots of evidence that the sectors Trump was targeting to try to help here, he didn’t. There just wasn’t a lot of employment rebound to the United States. But politically, it really worked. The tariffs were very popular. They had this effect of showing voters in those hollowed-out manufacturing areas that Trump was on their team and that he was fighting for them. Even if they didn’t see the jobs coming back, they felt like he was standing up for them.

So the research suggests this was a savvy political move by Trump. And in the process, it sort of changes the political economic landscape in both parties in the United States.

Right. So Trump made these policies that seemed, for many, many years in the American political system, fringe, isolationist, economically bad, suddenly quite palatable and even desirable to mainstream policymakers.

Yeah. Suddenly getting tough on China is something everyone wants to do across both parties. And so from a political messaging standpoint, being tough on China is now where the mainstream is. But at the same time, there is still big disagreement over whether Trump is getting tough on China in the right way, whether he’s actually being effective at changing the trade relationship with China.

Remember that Trump was imposing these tariffs as a way to get leverage for a better deal with China. Well, he gets a deal of sorts, actually, with the Chinese government, which includes some things about tariffs, and also China agreeing to buy some products from the United States. Trump spins it as this huge win, but nobody else really, including Republicans, acts like Trump has solved the problem that Trump himself has identified. This deal is not enough to make everybody go, well, everything’s great with China now. We can move on to the next thing.

China remains this huge issue. And the question of what is the most effective way to deal with them is still an animating force in politics.

Got it. So politically, huge win, but policy-wise and economically, and fundamentally, the problem of China still very much unresolved.

Absolutely.

So then Biden comes in. What does Biden do? Does he keep the tariffs on?

Biden comes to office, and there remains this real pressure from economists to roll back what they consider to be the ineffective parts of Trump’s trade policy. That includes many of the tariffs. And it’s especially true at a time when almost immediately after Biden takes office, inflation spikes. And so Americans are paying a lot of money for products, and there’s this pressure on Biden, including from inside his administration, to roll back some of the China tariffs to give Americans some relief on prices.

And Biden considers this, but he doesn’t do it. He doesn’t reverse Trump’s tariff policy. In the end, he’s actually building on it.

We’ll be right back.

So Jim, you said that Biden is actually building on Trump’s anti-China policy. What exactly does that look like?

So Biden builds on the Trump China policy in three key ways, but he does it with a really specific goal that I just want you to keep in mind as we talk about all of this, which is that Biden isn’t just trying to beat China on everything. He’s not trying to cut a better deal. Biden is trying to beat China in a specific race to own the clean-energy future.

Clean energy.

Yeah. So keep that in mind, clean energy. And the animating force behind all of the things Biden does with China is that Biden wants to beat China on what he thinks are the jobs of the future, and that’s green technology.

Got it. OK. So what does he do first?

OK. Thing number one — let’s talk about the tariffs. He does not roll them back. And actually, he builds on them. For years, for the most part, he just lets the tariffs be. His administration reviews them. And it’s only now, this week, when his administration is going to actually act on the tariffs. And what they’re going to do is raise some of them. They’re going to raise them on strategic green tech things, like electric vehicles, in order to make them more expensive.

And I think it’s important to know the backdrop here, which is since Biden has taken office, China has started flooding global markets with really low-cost green technologies. Solar panels, electric vehicles are the two really big ones. And Biden’s aides are terrified that those imports are going to wash over the United States and basically wipe out American automakers, solar panel manufacturers, that essentially, if Americans can just buy super-cheap stuff from China, they’re not going to buy it from American factories. Those factories are going to go out of business.

So Biden’s goal of manufacturing jobs in clean energy, China is really threatening that by dumping all these products on the American market.

Exactly. And so what he wants to do is protect those factories with tariffs. And that means increasing the tariffs that Trump put on electric vehicles in hopes that American consumers will find them too expensive to buy.

But doesn’t that go against Biden’s goal of clean energy and things better for the environment? Lots of mass-market electric vehicles into the United States would seem to advance that goal. And here, he’s saying, no, you can’t come in.

Right, because Biden isn’t just trying to reduce emissions at all costs. He wants to reduce emissions while boosting American manufacturing jobs. He doesn’t want China to get a monopoly in these areas. And he’s also, in particular, worried about the politics of lost American manufacturing jobs. So Biden does not want to just let you buy cheaper Chinese technologies, even if that means reducing emissions.

He wants to boost American manufacturing of those things to compete with China, which brings us to our second thing that Biden has done to build on Trump’s China policy, which is that Biden has started to act like the Chinese government in particular areas by showering American manufacturers with subsidies.

I see. So dumping government money into American businesses.

Yes, tax incentives, direct grants. This is a way that China has, in the past decades, built its manufacturing dominance, is with state support for factories. Biden is trying to do that in particular targeted industries, including electric vehicles, solar power, wind power, semiconductors. Biden has passed a bunch of legislation that showers those sectors with incentives and government support in hopes of growing up much faster American industry.

Got it. So basically, Biden is trying to beat China at its own game.

Yeah, he’s essentially using tariffs to build a fortress around American industry so that he can train the troops to fight the clean energy battle with China.

And the troops being American companies.

Yes. It’s like, we’re going to give them protection — protectionist policy — in order to get up to size, get up to strength as an army in this battle for clean energy dominance against the Chinese.

Got it. So he’s trying to build up the fortress. What’s the third thing Biden does? You mentioned three things.

Biden does not want the United States going it alone against China. He’s trying to build an international coalition, wealthy countries and some other emerging countries that are going to take on China and try to stop the Chinese from using their trade playbook to take over all these new emerging industrial markets.

But, Jim, why? What does the US get from bringing our allies into this trade war? Why does the US want that?

Some of this really is about stopping China from gaining access to new markets. It’s like, if you put the low-cost Chinese exports on a boat, and it’s going around the world, looking for a dock to stop and offload the stuff and sell it, Biden wants barriers up at every possible port. And he wants factories in those places that are competing with the Chinese.

And a crucial fact to know here is that the United States and Europe, they are behind China when it comes to clean-energy technology. The Chinese government has invested a lot more than America and Europe in building up its industrial capacity for clean energy. So America and its allies want to deny China dominance of those markets and to build up their own access to them.

And they’re behind, so they’ve got to get going. It’s like they’re in a race, and they’re trailing.

Yeah, it’s an economic race to own these industries, and it’s that global emissions race. They also want to be bringing down fossil-fuel emissions faster than they currently are, and this is their plan.

So I guess, Jim, the question in my mind is, Trump effectively broke the seal, right? He started all of these tariffs. He started this trade war with China. But he did it in this kind of jackhammer, non-targeted way, and it didn’t really work economically. Now Biden is taking it a step further. But the question is, is his effort here going to work?

The answer to whether it’s going to work really depends on what your goals are. And Biden and Trump have very different goals. If Trump wins the White House back, he has made very clear that his goal is to try to rip the United States trade relationship with China even more than he already has. He just wants less trade with China and more stuff of all types made in the United States that used to be made in China. That’s a very difficult goal, but it’s not Biden’s goal.

Biden’s goal is that he wants America to make more stuff in these targeted industries. And there is real skepticism from free-market economists that his industrial policies will work on that, but there’s a lot of enthusiasm for it from a new strain of Democratic economists, in particular, who believe that the only chance Biden has to make that work is by pulling all of these levers, by doing the big subsidies and by putting up the tariffs, that you have to have both the troops training and the wall around them. And if it’s going to work, he has to build on the Trump policies. And so I guess you’re asking, will it work? It may be dependent upon just how far he’s willing to go on the subsidies and the barriers.

There’s a chance of it.

So, Jim, at the highest level, whatever the economic outcome here, it strikes me that these moves by Biden are pretty remarkably different from the policies of the Democratic Party over the decades, really going in the opposite direction. I’m thinking of Bill Clinton and NAFTA in the 1990s. Free trade was the real central mantra of the Democratic Party, really of both parties.

Yeah, and Biden is a real break from Clinton. And Clinton was the one who actually signed the law that really opened up trade with China, and Biden’s a break from that. He’s a break from even President Obama when he was vice president. Biden is doing something different. He’s breaking from that Democratic tradition, and he’s building on what Trump did, but with some throwback elements to it from the Roosevelt administration and the Eisenhower administration. This is this grand American tradition of industrial policy that gave us the space race and the interstate highway system. It’s the idea of using the power of the federal government to build up specific industrial capacities. It was in vogue for a time. It fell out of fashion and was replaced by this idea that the government should get out of the way, and you let the free market drive innovation. And now that industrial policy idea is back in vogue, and Biden is doing it.

So it isn’t just a shift or an evolution. It’s actually a return to big government spending of the ‘30s and the ‘40s and the ‘50s of American industrialism of that era. So what goes around comes around.

Yeah, and it’s a return to that older economic theory with new elements. And it’s in part because of the almost jealousy that American policymakers have of China and the success that it’s had building up its own industrial base. But it also has this political element to it. It’s, in part, animated by the success that Trump had making China an issue with working-class American voters.

You didn’t have to lose your job to China to feel like China was a stand-in for the forces that have taken away good-paying middle-class jobs from American workers who expected those jobs to be there. And so Trump tapped into that. And Biden is trying to tap into that. And the political incentives are pushing every future American president to do more of that. So I think we are going to see even more of this going forward, and that’s why we’re in such an interesting moment right now.

So we’re going to see more fortresses.

More fortresses, more troops, more money.

Jim, thank you.

You’re welcome.

Here’s what else you should know today. Intense fighting between Hamas fighters and Israeli troops raged in parts of Northern Gaza over the weekend, an area where Israel had declared Hamas defeated earlier in the war, only to see the group reconstitute in the power vacuum that was left behind. The persistent lawlessness raised concerns about the future of Gaza among American officials. Secretary of State Antony Blinken said on “Face the Nation” on Sunday that the return of Hamas to the North left him concerned that Israeli victories there would be, quote, “not sustainable,” and said that Israel had not presented the United States with any plan for when the war ends.

And the United Nations aid agency in Gaza said early on Sunday that about 300,000 people had fled from Rafah over the past week, the city in the enclave’s southernmost tip where more than a million displaced Gazans had sought shelter from Israeli bombardments elsewhere. The UN made the announcement hours after the Israeli government issued new evacuation orders in Rafah, deepening fears that the Israeli military was preparing to invade the city despite international warnings.

Today’s episode was produced by Nina Feldman, Carlos Prieto, Sidney Harper, and Luke Vander Ploeg. It was edited by M.J. Davis Lin, Brendan Klinkenberg, and Lisa Chow. Contains original music by Diane Wong, Marion Lozano, and Dan Powell, and was engineered by Alyssa Moxley. Our theme music is by Jim Brunberg and Ben Landsverk of Wonderly.

That’s it for “The Daily.” I’m Sabrina Tavernise. See you tomorrow.

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May 15, 2024 • 27:03 The Possible Collapse of the U.S. Home Insurance System
May 14, 2024 • 35:20 Voters Want Change. In Our Poll, They See It in Trump.
May 13, 2024 • 27:46 How Biden Adopted Trump’s Trade War With China
May 10, 2024 • 27:42 Stormy Daniels Takes the Stand
May 9, 2024 • 34:42 One Strongman, One Billion Voters, and the Future of India
May 8, 2024 • 28:28 A Plan to Remake the Middle East
May 7, 2024 • 27:43 How Changing Ocean Temperatures Could Upend Life on Earth
May 6, 2024 • 29:23 R.F.K. Jr.’s Battle to Get on the Ballot
May 3, 2024 • 25:33 The Protesters and the President
May 2, 2024 • 29:13 Biden Loosens Up on Weed

Hosted by Sabrina Tavernise

Produced by Nina Feldman , Carlos Prieto , Sydney Harper and Luke Vander Ploeg

Edited by M.J. Davis Lin , Brendan Klinkenberg and Lisa Chow

Original music by Diane Wong , Marion Lozano and Dan Powell

Engineered by Alyssa Moxley

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Donald Trump upended decades of American policy when he started a trade war with China. Many thought that President Biden would reverse those policies. Instead, he’s stepping them up.

Jim Tankersley, who covers economic policy at the White House, explains.

On today’s episode

Jim Tankersley , who covers economic policy at the White House for The New York Times.

At a large shipping yard, thousands of vehicles are stacked in groups. Red cranes are in the background.

Background reading

Mr. Biden, competing with Mr. Trump to be tough on China , called for steel tariffs last month.

The Biden administration may raise tariffs on electric vehicles from China to 100 percent .

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Our theme music is by Jim Brunberg and Ben Landsverk of Wonderly. Special thanks to Sam Dolnick, Paula Szuchman, Lisa Tobin, Larissa Anderson, Julia Simon, Sofia Milan, Mahima Chablani, Elizabeth Davis-Moorer, Jeffrey Miranda, Renan Borelli, Maddy Masiello, Isabella Anderson and Nina Lassam.

Luke Vander Ploeg is a senior producer on “The Daily” and a reporter for the National Desk covering the Midwest. More about Luke Vander Ploeg

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Handwashing
Hand Hygiene as a Family Activity
Hand Hygiene FAQs
Handwashing Facts
Publications, Data, & Statistics
Health Promotion Materials
Global Handwashing Day
Life is Better with Clean Hands Campaign
Clinical Safety
Healthcare Training
Clean Hands Count Materials

About Handwashing

Many diseases and conditions are spread by not washing hands with soap and clean, running water.
Handwashing with soap is one of the best ways to stay healthy.
If soap and water are not readily available, use a hand sanitizer with at least 60% alcohol to clean your hands.

Why it's important

Washing hands can keep you healthy and prevent the spread of respiratory and diarrheal infections. Germs can spread from person to person or from surfaces to people when you:

Touch your eyes, nose, and mouth with unwashed hands
Prepare or eat food and drinks with unwashed hands
Touch surfaces or objects that have germs on them
Blow your nose, cough, or sneeze into hands and then touch other people's hands or common objects

Key times to wash hands

You can help yourself and your loved ones stay healthy by washing your hands often, especially during these key times when you are likely to get and spread germs:

Before, during, and after preparing food
Before and after eating food
Before and after caring for someone at home who is sick with vomiting or diarrhea
Before and after treating a cut or wound
After using the toilet
After changing diapers or cleaning up a child who has used the toilet
After blowing your nose, coughing, or sneezing
After touching an animal, animal feed, or animal waste
After handling pet food or pet treats
After touching garbage

How it works

Washing your hands is easy, and it’s one of the most effective ways to prevent the spread of germs. Follow these five steps every time.

Wet your hands with clean, running water (warm or cold), turn off the tap, and apply soap.
Lather your hands by rubbing them together with the soap. Lather the backs of your hands, between your fingers, and under your nails.
Scrub your hands for at least 20 seconds . Need a timer? Hum the “Happy Birthday” song from beginning to end twice.
Rinse your hands well under clean, running water.
Dry your hands using a clean towel or an air dryer.

Use hand sanitizer when you can't use soap and water

Washing hands with soap and water is the best way to get rid of germs in most situations. If soap and water are not readily available, you can use an alcohol-based hand sanitizer that contains at least 60% alcohol. You can tell if the sanitizer contains at least 60% alcohol by looking at the product label.

What you can do

CDC has health promotion materials to encourage kids and adults to make handwashing part of their everyday lives.

Share social media graphics and messages.
Print stickers and place clings on bathroom mirrors.
Promote handwashing on or around Global Handwashing Day , celebrated each year on October 15.
Distribute fact sheets to share information about hand hygiene for specific audiences.
Frequent Questions About Hand Hygiene
Hand Hygiene in Healthcare Settings
The Life is Better with Clean Hands Campaign

Clean Hands

Having clean hands is one of the best ways to avoid getting sick and prevent the spread of germs to others.

For Everyone

Health care providers.

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