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Definition of assignment

task , duty , job , chore , stint , assignment mean a piece of work to be done.

task implies work imposed by a person in authority or an employer or by circumstance.

duty implies an obligation to perform or responsibility for performance.

job applies to a piece of work voluntarily performed; it may sometimes suggest difficulty or importance.

chore implies a minor routine activity necessary for maintaining a household or farm.

stint implies a carefully allotted or measured quantity of assigned work or service.

assignment implies a definite limited task assigned by one in authority.

Examples of assignment in a Sentence

These examples are programmatically compiled from various online sources to illustrate current usage of the word 'assignment.' Any opinions expressed in the examples do not represent those of Merriam-Webster or its editors. Send us feedback about these examples.

Word History

see assign entry 1

14th century, in the meaning defined at sense 1

Phrases Containing assignment

• self - assignment

Dictionary Entries Near assignment

Cite this entry.

“Assignment.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary , Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/assignment. Accessed 9 Apr. 2024.

Legal Definition

Legal definition of assignment, more from merriam-webster on assignment.

Nglish: Translation of assignment for Spanish Speakers

Britannica English: Translation of assignment for Arabic Speakers

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Home » Assignment – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Assignment – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

Table of Contents

Definition:

Assignment is a task given to students by a teacher or professor, usually as a means of assessing their understanding and application of course material. Assignments can take various forms, including essays, research papers, presentations, problem sets, lab reports, and more.

Assignments are typically designed to be completed outside of class time and may require independent research, critical thinking, and analysis. They are often graded and used as a significant component of a student’s overall course grade. The instructions for an assignment usually specify the goals, requirements, and deadlines for completion, and students are expected to meet these criteria to earn a good grade.

History of Assignment

The use of assignments as a tool for teaching and learning has been a part of education for centuries. Following is a brief history of the Assignment.

• Ancient Times: Assignments such as writing exercises, recitations, and memorization tasks were used to reinforce learning.
• Medieval Period : Universities began to develop the concept of the assignment, with students completing essays, commentaries, and translations to demonstrate their knowledge and understanding of the subject matter.
• 19th Century : With the growth of schools and universities, assignments became more widespread and were used to assess student progress and achievement.
• 20th Century: The rise of distance education and online learning led to the further development of assignments as an integral part of the educational process.
• Present Day: Assignments continue to be used in a variety of educational settings and are seen as an effective way to promote student learning and assess student achievement. The nature and format of assignments continue to evolve in response to changing educational needs and technological innovations.

Types of Assignment

Here are some of the most common types of assignments:

An essay is a piece of writing that presents an argument, analysis, or interpretation of a topic or question. It usually consists of an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion.

Essay structure:

• Introduction : introduces the topic and thesis statement
• Body paragraphs : each paragraph presents a different argument or idea, with evidence and analysis to support it
• Conclusion : summarizes the key points and reiterates the thesis statement

Research paper

A research paper involves gathering and analyzing information on a particular topic, and presenting the findings in a well-structured, documented paper. It usually involves conducting original research, collecting data, and presenting it in a clear, organized manner.

Research paper structure:

• Title page : includes the title of the paper, author’s name, date, and institution
• Abstract : summarizes the paper’s main points and conclusions
• Introduction : provides background information on the topic and research question
• Literature review: summarizes previous research on the topic
• Methodology : explains how the research was conducted
• Results : presents the findings of the research
• Discussion : interprets the results and draws conclusions
• Conclusion : summarizes the key findings and implications

A case study involves analyzing a real-life situation, problem or issue, and presenting a solution or recommendations based on the analysis. It often involves extensive research, data analysis, and critical thinking.

Case study structure:

• Introduction : introduces the case study and its purpose
• Background : provides context and background information on the case
• Analysis : examines the key issues and problems in the case
• Solution/recommendations: proposes solutions or recommendations based on the analysis
• Conclusion: Summarize the key points and implications

A lab report is a scientific document that summarizes the results of a laboratory experiment or research project. It typically includes an introduction, methodology, results, discussion, and conclusion.

Lab report structure:

• Title page : includes the title of the experiment, author’s name, date, and institution
• Abstract : summarizes the purpose, methodology, and results of the experiment
• Methods : explains how the experiment was conducted
• Results : presents the findings of the experiment

Presentation

A presentation involves delivering information, data or findings to an audience, often with the use of visual aids such as slides, charts, or diagrams. It requires clear communication skills, good organization, and effective use of technology.

Presentation structure:

• Introduction : introduces the topic and purpose of the presentation
• Body : presents the main points, findings, or data, with the help of visual aids
• Conclusion : summarizes the key points and provides a closing statement

Creative Project

A creative project is an assignment that requires students to produce something original, such as a painting, sculpture, video, or creative writing piece. It allows students to demonstrate their creativity and artistic skills.

Creative project structure:

• Introduction : introduces the project and its purpose
• Body : presents the creative work, with explanations or descriptions as needed
• Conclusion : summarizes the key elements and reflects on the creative process.

Examples of Assignments

Following are Examples of Assignment templates samples:

Essay template:

I. Introduction

• Hook: Grab the reader’s attention with a catchy opening sentence.
• Background: Provide some context or background information on the topic.
• Thesis statement: State the main argument or point of your essay.

II. Body paragraphs

• Topic sentence: Introduce the main idea or argument of the paragraph.
• Evidence: Provide evidence or examples to support your point.
• Analysis: Explain how the evidence supports your argument.
• Transition: Use a transition sentence to lead into the next paragraph.

III. Conclusion

• Restate thesis: Summarize your main argument or point.
• Review key points: Summarize the main points you made in your essay.
• Concluding thoughts: End with a final thought or call to action.

Research paper template:

I. Title page

• Title: Give your paper a descriptive title.
• Author: Include your name and institutional affiliation.
• Date: Provide the date the paper was submitted.

II. Abstract

• Background: Summarize the background and purpose of your research.
• Methodology: Describe the methods you used to conduct your research.
• Results: Summarize the main findings of your research.
• Conclusion: Provide a brief summary of the implications and conclusions of your research.

III. Introduction

• Background: Provide some background information on the topic.
• Research question: State your research question or hypothesis.
• Purpose: Explain the purpose of your research.

IV. Literature review

• Background: Summarize previous research on the topic.
• Gaps in research: Identify gaps or areas that need further research.

V. Methodology

• Participants: Describe the participants in your study.
• Procedure: Explain the procedure you used to conduct your research.
• Measures: Describe the measures you used to collect data.

VI. Results

• Quantitative results: Summarize the quantitative data you collected.
• Qualitative results: Summarize the qualitative data you collected.

VII. Discussion

• Interpretation: Interpret the results and explain what they mean.
• Implications: Discuss the implications of your research.
• Limitations: Identify any limitations or weaknesses of your research.

VIII. Conclusion

• Review key points: Summarize the main points you made in your paper.

Case study template:

• Background: Provide background information on the case.
• Research question: State the research question or problem you are examining.
• Purpose: Explain the purpose of the case study.

II. Analysis

• Problem: Identify the main problem or issue in the case.
• Factors: Describe the factors that contributed to the problem.
• Alternative solutions: Describe potential solutions to the problem.

III. Solution/recommendations

• Proposed solution: Describe the solution you are proposing.
• Rationale: Explain why this solution is the best one.
• Implementation: Describe how the solution can be implemented.

IV. Conclusion

• Summary: Summarize the main points of your case study.

Lab report template:

• Title: Give your report a descriptive title.
• Date: Provide the date the report was submitted.
• Background: Summarize the background and purpose of the experiment.
• Methodology: Describe the methods you used to conduct the experiment.
• Results: Summarize the main findings of the experiment.
• Conclusion: Provide a brief summary of the implications and conclusions
• Background: Provide some background information on the experiment.
• Hypothesis: State your hypothesis or research question.
• Purpose: Explain the purpose of the experiment.

IV. Materials and methods

• Materials: List the materials and equipment used in the experiment.
• Procedure: Describe the procedure you followed to conduct the experiment.
• Data: Present the data you collected in tables or graphs.
• Analysis: Analyze the data and describe the patterns or trends you observed.

VI. Discussion

• Implications: Discuss the implications of your findings.
• Limitations: Identify any limitations or weaknesses of the experiment.

VII. Conclusion

• Restate hypothesis: Summarize your hypothesis or research question.
• Review key points: Summarize the main points you made in your report.

Presentation template:

• Attention grabber: Grab the audience’s attention with a catchy opening.
• Purpose: Explain the purpose of your presentation.
• Overview: Provide an overview of what you will cover in your presentation.

II. Main points

• Main point 1: Present the first main point of your presentation.
• Supporting details: Provide supporting details or evidence to support your point.
• Main point 2: Present the second main point of your presentation.
• Main point 3: Present the third main point of your presentation.
• Summary: Summarize the main points of your presentation.
• Call to action: End with a final thought or call to action.

Creative writing template:

• Setting: Describe the setting of your story.
• Characters: Introduce the main characters of your story.
• Rising action: Introduce the conflict or problem in your story.
• Climax: Present the most intense moment of the story.
• Falling action: Resolve the conflict or problem in your story.
• Resolution: Describe how the conflict or problem was resolved.
• Final thoughts: End with a final thought or reflection on the story.

How to Write Assignment

Here is a general guide on how to write an assignment:

• Understand the assignment prompt: Before you begin writing, make sure you understand what the assignment requires. Read the prompt carefully and make note of any specific requirements or guidelines.
• Research and gather information: Depending on the type of assignment, you may need to do research to gather information to support your argument or points. Use credible sources such as academic journals, books, and reputable websites.
• Organize your ideas : Once you have gathered all the necessary information, organize your ideas into a clear and logical structure. Consider creating an outline or diagram to help you visualize your ideas.
• Write a draft: Begin writing your assignment using your organized ideas and research. Don’t worry too much about grammar or sentence structure at this point; the goal is to get your thoughts down on paper.
• Revise and edit: After you have written a draft, revise and edit your work. Make sure your ideas are presented in a clear and concise manner, and that your sentences and paragraphs flow smoothly.
• Proofread: Finally, proofread your work for spelling, grammar, and punctuation errors. It’s a good idea to have someone else read over your assignment as well to catch any mistakes you may have missed.
• Submit your assignment : Once you are satisfied with your work, submit your assignment according to the instructions provided by your instructor or professor.

Applications of Assignment

Assignments have many applications across different fields and industries. Here are a few examples:

• Education : Assignments are a common tool used in education to help students learn and demonstrate their knowledge. They can be used to assess a student’s understanding of a particular topic, to develop critical thinking skills, and to improve writing and research abilities.
• Business : Assignments can be used in the business world to assess employee skills, to evaluate job performance, and to provide training opportunities. They can also be used to develop business plans, marketing strategies, and financial projections.
• Journalism : Assignments are often used in journalism to produce news articles, features, and investigative reports. Journalists may be assigned to cover a particular event or topic, or to research and write a story on a specific subject.
• Research : Assignments can be used in research to collect and analyze data, to conduct experiments, and to present findings in written or oral form. Researchers may be assigned to conduct research on a specific topic, to write a research paper, or to present their findings at a conference or seminar.
• Government : Assignments can be used in government to develop policy proposals, to conduct research, and to analyze data. Government officials may be assigned to work on a specific project or to conduct research on a particular topic.
• Non-profit organizations: Assignments can be used in non-profit organizations to develop fundraising strategies, to plan events, and to conduct research. Volunteers may be assigned to work on a specific project or to help with a particular task.

Purpose of Assignment

The purpose of an assignment varies depending on the context in which it is given. However, some common purposes of assignments include:

• Assessing learning: Assignments are often used to assess a student’s understanding of a particular topic or concept. This allows educators to determine if a student has mastered the material or if they need additional support.
• Developing skills: Assignments can be used to develop a wide range of skills, such as critical thinking, problem-solving, research, and communication. Assignments that require students to analyze and synthesize information can help to build these skills.
• Encouraging creativity: Assignments can be designed to encourage students to be creative and think outside the box. This can help to foster innovation and original thinking.
• Providing feedback : Assignments provide an opportunity for teachers to provide feedback to students on their progress and performance. Feedback can help students to understand where they need to improve and to develop a growth mindset.
• Meeting learning objectives : Assignments can be designed to help students meet specific learning objectives or outcomes. For example, a writing assignment may be designed to help students improve their writing skills, while a research assignment may be designed to help students develop their research skills.

When to write Assignment

Assignments are typically given by instructors or professors as part of a course or academic program. The timing of when to write an assignment will depend on the specific requirements of the course or program, but in general, assignments should be completed within the timeframe specified by the instructor or program guidelines.

It is important to begin working on assignments as soon as possible to ensure enough time for research, writing, and revisions. Waiting until the last minute can result in rushed work and lower quality output.

It is also important to prioritize assignments based on their due dates and the amount of work required. This will help to manage time effectively and ensure that all assignments are completed on time.

In addition to assignments given by instructors or professors, there may be other situations where writing an assignment is necessary. For example, in the workplace, assignments may be given to complete a specific project or task. In these situations, it is important to establish clear deadlines and expectations to ensure that the assignment is completed on time and to a high standard.

Characteristics of Assignment

Here are some common characteristics of assignments:

• Purpose : Assignments have a specific purpose, such as assessing knowledge or developing skills. They are designed to help students learn and achieve specific learning objectives.
• Requirements: Assignments have specific requirements that must be met, such as a word count, format, or specific content. These requirements are usually provided by the instructor or professor.
• Deadline: Assignments have a specific deadline for completion, which is usually set by the instructor or professor. It is important to meet the deadline to avoid penalties or lower grades.
• Individual or group work: Assignments can be completed individually or as part of a group. Group assignments may require collaboration and communication with other group members.
• Feedback : Assignments provide an opportunity for feedback from the instructor or professor. This feedback can help students to identify areas of improvement and to develop their skills.
• Academic integrity: Assignments require academic integrity, which means that students must submit original work and avoid plagiarism. This includes citing sources properly and following ethical guidelines.
• Learning outcomes : Assignments are designed to help students achieve specific learning outcomes. These outcomes are usually related to the course objectives and may include developing critical thinking skills, writing abilities, or subject-specific knowledge.

Advantages of Assignment

There are several advantages of assignment, including:

• Helps in learning: Assignments help students to reinforce their learning and understanding of a particular topic. By completing assignments, students get to apply the concepts learned in class, which helps them to better understand and retain the information.
• Develops critical thinking skills: Assignments often require students to think critically and analyze information in order to come up with a solution or answer. This helps to develop their critical thinking skills, which are important for success in many areas of life.
• Encourages creativity: Assignments that require students to create something, such as a piece of writing or a project, can encourage creativity and innovation. This can help students to develop new ideas and perspectives, which can be beneficial in many areas of life.
• Builds time-management skills: Assignments often come with deadlines, which can help students to develop time-management skills. Learning how to manage time effectively is an important skill that can help students to succeed in many areas of life.
• Provides feedback: Assignments provide an opportunity for students to receive feedback on their work. This feedback can help students to identify areas where they need to improve and can help them to grow and develop.

Limitations of Assignment

There are also some limitations of assignments that should be considered, including:

• Limited scope: Assignments are often limited in scope, and may not provide a comprehensive understanding of a particular topic. They may only cover a specific aspect of a topic, and may not provide a full picture of the subject matter.
• Lack of engagement: Some assignments may not engage students in the learning process, particularly if they are repetitive or not challenging enough. This can lead to a lack of motivation and interest in the subject matter.
• Time-consuming: Assignments can be time-consuming, particularly if they require a lot of research or writing. This can be a disadvantage for students who have other commitments, such as work or extracurricular activities.
• Unreliable assessment: The assessment of assignments can be subjective and may not always accurately reflect a student’s understanding or abilities. The grading may be influenced by factors such as the instructor’s personal biases or the student’s writing style.
• Lack of feedback : Although assignments can provide feedback, this feedback may not always be detailed or useful. Instructors may not have the time or resources to provide detailed feedback on every assignment, which can limit the value of the feedback that students receive.

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Methodology

• Random Assignment in Experiments | Introduction & Examples

Random Assignment in Experiments | Introduction & Examples

Published on March 8, 2021 by Pritha Bhandari . Revised on June 22, 2023.

In experimental research, random assignment is a way of placing participants from your sample into different treatment groups using randomization.

With simple random assignment, every member of the sample has a known or equal chance of being placed in a control group or an experimental group. Studies that use simple random assignment are also called completely randomized designs .

Random assignment is a key part of experimental design . It helps you ensure that all groups are comparable at the start of a study: any differences between them are due to random factors, not research biases like sampling bias or selection bias .

Table of contents

Why does random assignment matter, random sampling vs random assignment, how do you use random assignment, when is random assignment not used, other interesting articles, frequently asked questions about random assignment.

Random assignment is an important part of control in experimental research, because it helps strengthen the internal validity of an experiment and avoid biases.

In experiments, researchers manipulate an independent variable to assess its effect on a dependent variable, while controlling for other variables. To do so, they often use different levels of an independent variable for different groups of participants.

This is called a between-groups or independent measures design.

You use three groups of participants that are each given a different level of the independent variable:

• a control group that’s given a placebo (no dosage, to control for a placebo effect ),
• an experimental group that’s given a low dosage,
• a second experimental group that’s given a high dosage.

Random assignment to helps you make sure that the treatment groups don’t differ in systematic ways at the start of the experiment, as this can seriously affect (and even invalidate) your work.

If you don’t use random assignment, you may not be able to rule out alternative explanations for your results.

• participants recruited from cafes are placed in the control group ,
• participants recruited from local community centers are placed in the low dosage experimental group,
• participants recruited from gyms are placed in the high dosage group.

With this type of assignment, it’s hard to tell whether the participant characteristics are the same across all groups at the start of the study. Gym-users may tend to engage in more healthy behaviors than people who frequent cafes or community centers, and this would introduce a healthy user bias in your study.

Although random assignment helps even out baseline differences between groups, it doesn’t always make them completely equivalent. There may still be extraneous variables that differ between groups, and there will always be some group differences that arise from chance.

Most of the time, the random variation between groups is low, and, therefore, it’s acceptable for further analysis. This is especially true when you have a large sample. In general, you should always use random assignment in experiments when it is ethically possible and makes sense for your study topic.

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Random sampling and random assignment are both important concepts in research, but it’s important to understand the difference between them.

Random sampling (also called probability sampling or random selection) is a way of selecting members of a population to be included in your study. In contrast, random assignment is a way of sorting the sample participants into control and experimental groups.

While random sampling is used in many types of studies, random assignment is only used in between-subjects experimental designs.

Some studies use both random sampling and random assignment, while others use only one or the other.

Random sampling enhances the external validity or generalizability of your results, because it helps ensure that your sample is unbiased and representative of the whole population. This allows you to make stronger statistical inferences .

You use a simple random sample to collect data. Because you have access to the whole population (all employees), you can assign all 8000 employees a number and use a random number generator to select 300 employees. These 300 employees are your full sample.

Random assignment enhances the internal validity of the study, because it ensures that there are no systematic differences between the participants in each group. This helps you conclude that the outcomes can be attributed to the independent variable .

• a control group that receives no intervention.
• an experimental group that has a remote team-building intervention every week for a month.

You use random assignment to place participants into the control or experimental group. To do so, you take your list of participants and assign each participant a number. Again, you use a random number generator to place each participant in one of the two groups.

To use simple random assignment, you start by giving every member of the sample a unique number. Then, you can use computer programs or manual methods to randomly assign each participant to a group.

• Random number generator: Use a computer program to generate random numbers from the list for each group.
• Lottery method: Place all numbers individually in a hat or a bucket, and draw numbers at random for each group.
• Flip a coin: When you only have two groups, for each number on the list, flip a coin to decide if they’ll be in the control or the experimental group.
• Use a dice: When you have three groups, for each number on the list, roll a dice to decide which of the groups they will be in. For example, assume that rolling 1 or 2 lands them in a control group; 3 or 4 in an experimental group; and 5 or 6 in a second control or experimental group.

This type of random assignment is the most powerful method of placing participants in conditions, because each individual has an equal chance of being placed in any one of your treatment groups.

Random assignment in block designs

In more complicated experimental designs, random assignment is only used after participants are grouped into blocks based on some characteristic (e.g., test score or demographic variable). These groupings mean that you need a larger sample to achieve high statistical power .

For example, a randomized block design involves placing participants into blocks based on a shared characteristic (e.g., college students versus graduates), and then using random assignment within each block to assign participants to every treatment condition. This helps you assess whether the characteristic affects the outcomes of your treatment.

In an experimental matched design , you use blocking and then match up individual participants from each block based on specific characteristics. Within each matched pair or group, you randomly assign each participant to one of the conditions in the experiment and compare their outcomes.

Sometimes, it’s not relevant or ethical to use simple random assignment, so groups are assigned in a different way.

When comparing different groups

Sometimes, differences between participants are the main focus of a study, for example, when comparing men and women or people with and without health conditions. Participants are not randomly assigned to different groups, but instead assigned based on their characteristics.

In this type of study, the characteristic of interest (e.g., gender) is an independent variable, and the groups differ based on the different levels (e.g., men, women, etc.). All participants are tested the same way, and then their group-level outcomes are compared.

When it’s not ethically permissible

When studying unhealthy or dangerous behaviors, it’s not possible to use random assignment. For example, if you’re studying heavy drinkers and social drinkers, it’s unethical to randomly assign participants to one of the two groups and ask them to drink large amounts of alcohol for your experiment.

When you can’t assign participants to groups, you can also conduct a quasi-experimental study . In a quasi-experiment, you study the outcomes of pre-existing groups who receive treatments that you may not have any control over (e.g., heavy drinkers and social drinkers). These groups aren’t randomly assigned, but may be considered comparable when some other variables (e.g., age or socioeconomic status) are controlled for.

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If you want to know more about statistics , methodology , or research bias , make sure to check out some of our other articles with explanations and examples.

• Student’s  t -distribution
• Normal distribution
• Null and Alternative Hypotheses
• Chi square tests
• Confidence interval
• Quartiles & Quantiles
• Cluster sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Data cleansing
• Reproducibility vs Replicability
• Peer review
• Prospective cohort study

Research bias

• Implicit bias
• Cognitive bias
• Placebo effect
• Hawthorne effect
• Hindsight bias
• Affect heuristic
• Social desirability bias

In experimental research, random assignment is a way of placing participants from your sample into different groups using randomization. With this method, every member of the sample has a known or equal chance of being placed in a control group or an experimental group.

Random selection, or random sampling , is a way of selecting members of a population for your study’s sample.

In contrast, random assignment is a way of sorting the sample into control and experimental groups.

Random sampling enhances the external validity or generalizability of your results, while random assignment improves the internal validity of your study.

Random assignment is used in experiments with a between-groups or independent measures design. In this research design, there’s usually a control group and one or more experimental groups. Random assignment helps ensure that the groups are comparable.

In general, you should always use random assignment in this type of experimental design when it is ethically possible and makes sense for your study topic.

To implement random assignment , assign a unique number to every member of your study’s sample .

Then, you can use a random number generator or a lottery method to randomly assign each number to a control or experimental group. You can also do so manually, by flipping a coin or rolling a dice to randomly assign participants to groups.

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Bhandari, P. (2023, June 22). Random Assignment in Experiments | Introduction & Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved April 9, 2024, from https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/random-assignment/

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Misconception: Science is a collection of facts.

Correction: Science is both a body of knowledge and the process for building that knowledge. Read more about it.

What is science?

The word “ science ” probably brings to mind many different pictures: a fat textbook, white lab coats and microscopes, an astronomer peering through a telescope, a naturalist in the rainforest, Einstein’s equations scribbled on a chalkboard, the launch of the space shuttle, bubbling beakers …. All of those images reflect some aspect of science. But none of them provides a full picture because science has so many facets:

• Science is both a body of knowledge and a process. In school, science may sometimes seem like a collection of isolated and static  facts listed in a textbook, but that’s only a small part of the story. Just as importantly, science is also a process of discovery that allows us to link isolated facts into coherent and comprehensive understandings of the natural world .
• Science is exciting. Science is a way of discovering what’s in the universe and how those things work today, how they worked in the past, and how they are likely to work in the future. Scientists are motivated by the thrill of seeing or figuring out something that no one has before.
• Science is useful. The knowledge generated by science is powerful and reliable. It can be used to develop new technologies , treat diseases, and deal with many other sorts of problems.
• Science is ongoing. Science is continually refining and expanding our knowledge of the universe, and as it does, it leads to new questions for future investigation. Science will never be “finished.”
• Science is a global human endeavor. People all over the world participate in the process of science. And you can too!

This section describes what makes science science. You can investigate:

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Understanding Assignments

What this handout is about.

The first step in any successful college writing venture is reading the assignment. While this sounds like a simple task, it can be a tough one. This handout will help you unravel your assignment and begin to craft an effective response. Much of the following advice will involve translating typical assignment terms and practices into meaningful clues to the type of writing your instructor expects. See our short video for more tips.

Basic beginnings

Regardless of the assignment, department, or instructor, adopting these two habits will serve you well :

• Read the assignment carefully as soon as you receive it. Do not put this task off—reading the assignment at the beginning will save you time, stress, and problems later. An assignment can look pretty straightforward at first, particularly if the instructor has provided lots of information. That does not mean it will not take time and effort to complete; you may even have to learn a new skill to complete the assignment.
• Ask the instructor about anything you do not understand. Do not hesitate to approach your instructor. Instructors would prefer to set you straight before you hand the paper in. That’s also when you will find their feedback most useful.

Assignment formats

Many assignments follow a basic format. Assignments often begin with an overview of the topic, include a central verb or verbs that describe the task, and offer some additional suggestions, questions, or prompts to get you started.

An Overview of Some Kind

The instructor might set the stage with some general discussion of the subject of the assignment, introduce the topic, or remind you of something pertinent that you have discussed in class. For example:

“Throughout history, gerbils have played a key role in politics,” or “In the last few weeks of class, we have focused on the evening wear of the housefly …”

The Task of the Assignment

Pay attention; this part tells you what to do when you write the paper. Look for the key verb or verbs in the sentence. Words like analyze, summarize, or compare direct you to think about your topic in a certain way. Also pay attention to words such as how, what, when, where, and why; these words guide your attention toward specific information. (See the section in this handout titled “Key Terms” for more information.)

“Analyze the effect that gerbils had on the Russian Revolution”, or “Suggest an interpretation of housefly undergarments that differs from Darwin’s.”

Additional Material to Think about

Here you will find some questions to use as springboards as you begin to think about the topic. Instructors usually include these questions as suggestions rather than requirements. Do not feel compelled to answer every question unless the instructor asks you to do so. Pay attention to the order of the questions. Sometimes they suggest the thinking process your instructor imagines you will need to follow to begin thinking about the topic.

“You may wish to consider the differing views held by Communist gerbils vs. Monarchist gerbils, or Can there be such a thing as ‘the housefly garment industry’ or is it just a home-based craft?”

These are the instructor’s comments about writing expectations:

“Be concise”, “Write effectively”, or “Argue furiously.”

Technical Details

These instructions usually indicate format rules or guidelines.

“Your paper must be typed in Palatino font on gray paper and must not exceed 600 pages. It is due on the anniversary of Mao Tse-tung’s death.”

The assignment’s parts may not appear in exactly this order, and each part may be very long or really short. Nonetheless, being aware of this standard pattern can help you understand what your instructor wants you to do.

Interpreting the assignment

Ask yourself a few basic questions as you read and jot down the answers on the assignment sheet:

Why did your instructor ask you to do this particular task?

Who is your audience.

• What kind of evidence do you need to support your ideas?

What kind of writing style is acceptable?

• What are the absolute rules of the paper?

Try to look at the question from the point of view of the instructor. Recognize that your instructor has a reason for giving you this assignment and for giving it to you at a particular point in the semester. In every assignment, the instructor has a challenge for you. This challenge could be anything from demonstrating an ability to think clearly to demonstrating an ability to use the library. See the assignment not as a vague suggestion of what to do but as an opportunity to show that you can handle the course material as directed. Paper assignments give you more than a topic to discuss—they ask you to do something with the topic. Keep reminding yourself of that. Be careful to avoid the other extreme as well: do not read more into the assignment than what is there.

Of course, your instructor has given you an assignment so that he or she will be able to assess your understanding of the course material and give you an appropriate grade. But there is more to it than that. Your instructor has tried to design a learning experience of some kind. Your instructor wants you to think about something in a particular way for a particular reason. If you read the course description at the beginning of your syllabus, review the assigned readings, and consider the assignment itself, you may begin to see the plan, purpose, or approach to the subject matter that your instructor has created for you. If you still aren’t sure of the assignment’s goals, try asking the instructor. For help with this, see our handout on getting feedback .

Given your instructor’s efforts, it helps to answer the question: What is my purpose in completing this assignment? Is it to gather research from a variety of outside sources and present a coherent picture? Is it to take material I have been learning in class and apply it to a new situation? Is it to prove a point one way or another? Key words from the assignment can help you figure this out. Look for key terms in the form of active verbs that tell you what to do.

Key Terms: Finding Those Active Verbs

Here are some common key words and definitions to help you think about assignment terms:

Information words Ask you to demonstrate what you know about the subject, such as who, what, when, where, how, and why.

• define —give the subject’s meaning (according to someone or something). Sometimes you have to give more than one view on the subject’s meaning
• describe —provide details about the subject by answering question words (such as who, what, when, where, how, and why); you might also give details related to the five senses (what you see, hear, feel, taste, and smell)
• explain —give reasons why or examples of how something happened
• illustrate —give descriptive examples of the subject and show how each is connected with the subject
• summarize —briefly list the important ideas you learned about the subject
• trace —outline how something has changed or developed from an earlier time to its current form
• research —gather material from outside sources about the subject, often with the implication or requirement that you will analyze what you have found

Relation words Ask you to demonstrate how things are connected.

• compare —show how two or more things are similar (and, sometimes, different)
• contrast —show how two or more things are dissimilar
• apply—use details that you’ve been given to demonstrate how an idea, theory, or concept works in a particular situation
• cause —show how one event or series of events made something else happen
• relate —show or describe the connections between things

Interpretation words Ask you to defend ideas of your own about the subject. Do not see these words as requesting opinion alone (unless the assignment specifically says so), but as requiring opinion that is supported by concrete evidence. Remember examples, principles, definitions, or concepts from class or research and use them in your interpretation.

• assess —summarize your opinion of the subject and measure it against something
• prove, justify —give reasons or examples to demonstrate how or why something is the truth
• evaluate, respond —state your opinion of the subject as good, bad, or some combination of the two, with examples and reasons
• support —give reasons or evidence for something you believe (be sure to state clearly what it is that you believe)
• synthesize —put two or more things together that have not been put together in class or in your readings before; do not just summarize one and then the other and say that they are similar or different—you must provide a reason for putting them together that runs all the way through the paper
• analyze —determine how individual parts create or relate to the whole, figure out how something works, what it might mean, or why it is important
• argue —take a side and defend it with evidence against the other side

More Clues to Your Purpose As you read the assignment, think about what the teacher does in class:

• What kinds of textbooks or coursepack did your instructor choose for the course—ones that provide background information, explain theories or perspectives, or argue a point of view?
• In lecture, does your instructor ask your opinion, try to prove her point of view, or use keywords that show up again in the assignment?
• What kinds of assignments are typical in this discipline? Social science classes often expect more research. Humanities classes thrive on interpretation and analysis.
• How do the assignments, readings, and lectures work together in the course? Instructors spend time designing courses, sometimes even arguing with their peers about the most effective course materials. Figuring out the overall design to the course will help you understand what each assignment is meant to achieve.

Now, what about your reader? Most undergraduates think of their audience as the instructor. True, your instructor is a good person to keep in mind as you write. But for the purposes of a good paper, think of your audience as someone like your roommate: smart enough to understand a clear, logical argument, but not someone who already knows exactly what is going on in your particular paper. Remember, even if the instructor knows everything there is to know about your paper topic, he or she still has to read your paper and assess your understanding. In other words, teach the material to your reader.

Aiming a paper at your audience happens in two ways: you make decisions about the tone and the level of information you want to convey.

• Tone means the “voice” of your paper. Should you be chatty, formal, or objective? Usually you will find some happy medium—you do not want to alienate your reader by sounding condescending or superior, but you do not want to, um, like, totally wig on the man, you know? Eschew ostentatious erudition: some students think the way to sound academic is to use big words. Be careful—you can sound ridiculous, especially if you use the wrong big words.
• The level of information you use depends on who you think your audience is. If you imagine your audience as your instructor and she already knows everything you have to say, you may find yourself leaving out key information that can cause your argument to be unconvincing and illogical. But you do not have to explain every single word or issue. If you are telling your roommate what happened on your favorite science fiction TV show last night, you do not say, “First a dark-haired white man of average height, wearing a suit and carrying a flashlight, walked into the room. Then a purple alien with fifteen arms and at least three eyes turned around. Then the man smiled slightly. In the background, you could hear a clock ticking. The room was fairly dark and had at least two windows that I saw.” You also do not say, “This guy found some aliens. The end.” Find some balance of useful details that support your main point.

You’ll find a much more detailed discussion of these concepts in our handout on audience .

The Grim Truth

With a few exceptions (including some lab and ethnography reports), you are probably being asked to make an argument. You must convince your audience. It is easy to forget this aim when you are researching and writing; as you become involved in your subject matter, you may become enmeshed in the details and focus on learning or simply telling the information you have found. You need to do more than just repeat what you have read. Your writing should have a point, and you should be able to say it in a sentence. Sometimes instructors call this sentence a “thesis” or a “claim.”

So, if your instructor tells you to write about some aspect of oral hygiene, you do not want to just list: “First, you brush your teeth with a soft brush and some peanut butter. Then, you floss with unwaxed, bologna-flavored string. Finally, gargle with bourbon.” Instead, you could say, “Of all the oral cleaning methods, sandblasting removes the most plaque. Therefore it should be recommended by the American Dental Association.” Or, “From an aesthetic perspective, moldy teeth can be quite charming. However, their joys are short-lived.”

Convincing the reader of your argument is the goal of academic writing. It doesn’t have to say “argument” anywhere in the assignment for you to need one. Look at the assignment and think about what kind of argument you could make about it instead of just seeing it as a checklist of information you have to present. For help with understanding the role of argument in academic writing, see our handout on argument .

What kind of evidence do you need?

There are many kinds of evidence, and what type of evidence will work for your assignment can depend on several factors–the discipline, the parameters of the assignment, and your instructor’s preference. Should you use statistics? Historical examples? Do you need to conduct your own experiment? Can you rely on personal experience? See our handout on evidence for suggestions on how to use evidence appropriately.

Make sure you are clear about this part of the assignment, because your use of evidence will be crucial in writing a successful paper. You are not just learning how to argue; you are learning how to argue with specific types of materials and ideas. Ask your instructor what counts as acceptable evidence. You can also ask a librarian for help. No matter what kind of evidence you use, be sure to cite it correctly—see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial .

You cannot always tell from the assignment just what sort of writing style your instructor expects. The instructor may be really laid back in class but still expect you to sound formal in writing. Or the instructor may be fairly formal in class and ask you to write a reflection paper where you need to use “I” and speak from your own experience.

Try to avoid false associations of a particular field with a style (“art historians like wacky creativity,” or “political scientists are boring and just give facts”) and look instead to the types of readings you have been given in class. No one expects you to write like Plato—just use the readings as a guide for what is standard or preferable to your instructor. When in doubt, ask your instructor about the level of formality she or he expects.

No matter what field you are writing for or what facts you are including, if you do not write so that your reader can understand your main idea, you have wasted your time. So make clarity your main goal. For specific help with style, see our handout on style .

Technical details about the assignment

The technical information you are given in an assignment always seems like the easy part. This section can actually give you lots of little hints about approaching the task. Find out if elements such as page length and citation format (see the UNC Libraries citation tutorial ) are negotiable. Some professors do not have strong preferences as long as you are consistent and fully answer the assignment. Some professors are very specific and will deduct big points for deviations.

Usually, the page length tells you something important: The instructor thinks the size of the paper is appropriate to the assignment’s parameters. In plain English, your instructor is telling you how many pages it should take for you to answer the question as fully as you are expected to. So if an assignment is two pages long, you cannot pad your paper with examples or reword your main idea several times. Hit your one point early, defend it with the clearest example, and finish quickly. If an assignment is ten pages long, you can be more complex in your main points and examples—and if you can only produce five pages for that assignment, you need to see someone for help—as soon as possible.

Tricks that don’t work

Your instructors are not fooled when you:

• spend more time on the cover page than the essay —graphics, cool binders, and cute titles are no replacement for a well-written paper.
• use huge fonts, wide margins, or extra spacing to pad the page length —these tricks are immediately obvious to the eye. Most instructors use the same word processor you do. They know what’s possible. Such tactics are especially damning when the instructor has a stack of 60 papers to grade and yours is the only one that low-flying airplane pilots could read.
• use a paper from another class that covered “sort of similar” material . Again, the instructor has a particular task for you to fulfill in the assignment that usually relates to course material and lectures. Your other paper may not cover this material, and turning in the same paper for more than one course may constitute an Honor Code violation . Ask the instructor—it can’t hurt.
• get all wacky and “creative” before you answer the question . Showing that you are able to think beyond the boundaries of a simple assignment can be good, but you must do what the assignment calls for first. Again, check with your instructor. A humorous tone can be refreshing for someone grading a stack of papers, but it will not get you a good grade if you have not fulfilled the task.

Critical reading of assignments leads to skills in other types of reading and writing. If you get good at figuring out what the real goals of assignments are, you are going to be better at understanding the goals of all of your classes and fields of study.

You may reproduce it for non-commercial use if you use the entire handout and attribute the source: The Writing Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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What Is An Assignment In Computer Science

Table of Contents:

Assignment – This definition explains the meaning of Assignment and why it matters.

An assignment is a statement in computer programming that is used to set a value to a variable name. The operator used to do assignment is denoted with an equal sign (=). This operand works by assigning the value on the right-hand side of the operand to the operand on the left-hand side.

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Assignment (computer science)

Certain use patterns are very common, and thus often have special syntax to support them. These are primarily syntactic sugar to reduce redundancy in the source code, but also assists readers of the code in understanding the programmer’s intent, and provides the compiler with a clue to possible optimization.

Today, probably the most generally used notation with this operation is x = expr (initially Superplan 1949–51, popularized by Fortran 1957 and C). The 2nd most generally used notation is(1) x := expr (initially ALGOL 1958, popularised by Pascal). A number of other notations will also be being used. In certain languages, the symbol used is considered being an operator (and therefore a job statement in general returns something). Other languages define assignment like a statement (and therefore it can’t be utilized within an expression).

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In computer programming, an assignment statement sets or re sets the value stored in the storage location(s) denoted by a variable name. In most imperative computer programming languages, assignment statements are one of the basic statements.…

In computer programming, an assignment statement sets or re-sets the value stored in the storage location(s) denoted by a variable name. In most imperative computer programming languages, assignment statements are one of the basic statements. Common notations for the assignment operator are = and :=.

Any assignment that changes an existing value (e. g. x := x + 1) is disallowed in purely functional languages. In functional programming, assignment is discouraged in favor of single assignment, also called name binding or initialization. Single assignment differs from assignment as described in this article in that it can only be made once, usually when the variable is created; no subsequent re-assignment is allowed. Once created by single assignment, named values are not variables but immutable objects.

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Adding Responsible CS to a Programming Assignment

The Proactive CARE template and the Evaluation Rubric were developed by Marty J. Wolf and Colleen Greer as part of the Mozilla Foundation Responsible Computer Science Challenge. These works are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4. 0 International License.

Within this module we offer a template for adding components to just about any programming assignment. The constituents give students possibilities to mirror around the social and ethical impacts from the software they’re developing and just how they may be responsible for that change up the software is wearing people. Additionally, we offer evaluation rubrics you can use to judge student work. One is made to gauge students who aren’t familiar with reflective practices. Another is perfect for students who’ve engage responsible information technology reflection in a number of courses.

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Overview – The assignment operator allows us to change the value of a modifiable data object (for beginning programmers this typically means a variable). It is associated with the concept of moving a value into the storage location (again usually a variable). Within most programming languages the symbol used for assignment is the equal symbol. But bite your tongue, when you see the = symbol you need to start thinking: assignment. The assignment operator has two operands. The one to the left of the operator is usually an identifier name for a variable. The one to the right of the operator is a value.

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In computer programming, an assignment statement sets and/or re-sets the value stored in the storage location(s) denoted by a variable name; in other words, it copies a value into the variable. In most imperative programming languages, the assignment statement (or expression) is a fundamental construct. (en)

In computer programming, an assignment statement sets and/or re-sets the value stored in the storage location(s) denoted by a variable name; in other words, it copies a value into the variable. In most imperative programming languages, the assignment statement (or expression) is a fundamental construct. Today, the most commonly used notation for this operation is x = expr (originally Superplan 1949–51, popularized by Fortran 1957 and C). The second most commonly used notation is x := expr (originally ALGOL 1958, popularised by Pascal),. Many other notations are also in use. In some languages, the symbol used is regarded as an operator (meaning that the assignment statement as a whole returns a value). Other languages define assignment as a statement (meaning that it cannot be used in an expression). Assignments typically allow a variable to hold different values at different times during its life-span and scope. However, some languages (primarily strictly functional languages) do not allow that kind of “destructive” reassignment, as it might imply changes of non-local state.

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1 QUESTION 1 Computer-programming. Computer-programming is definitely an science and art, of giving a mechanism or computer, the directions or instructions to follow along with to resolve an issue or accomplish an activity. QUESTION 2 Variations BETWEEN EVENT-DRIVEN AND OBJECT-ORIENTED AND PROCEDURAL PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES. To say the least, in the event-Driven the flow of Control is dependent upon occasions triggered through the user, (click of the mouse), although Object-Oriented Programming necessitates the programmer to pay attention to the objects the program may use to complete its goal. Finally, in Procedural Oriented Programming, the programmer only focuses on the main tasks the program must perform step-by-step. The flow of control for that program is dependent upon occasions mostly triggered by users. That’s, execution is decided for instance with a user action for example click, keypress, or perhaps a message in the Operating-system (OS) or any other user. Visual Basics and Visual C++ are specifically made to facilitate event-driven programming and supply a built-in development atmosphere (IDE) that partly automates producing code.

Encyclopedia article about Assignment (computer science) by The Free Dictionary.

assignment statement – assignment statement(ə′sīn·mənt ‚stāt·mənt) (computer science) A statement in a computer program that assigns a value to a variable. McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific & Technical Terms, 6E, Copyright © 2003 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. assignment statementIn programming, a compiler directive that places a value into a variable. For example, counter=0 creates a variable named counter and fills it with zeros. The VARIABLE=VALUE syntax is common among programming languages. Copyright © 1981-2019 by The Computer Language Company Inc. All Rights reserved. THIS DEFINITION IS FOR PERSONAL USE ONLY. All other reproduction is strictly prohibited without permission from the publisher.

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Programming Assignments – Computer Science; Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey.

Please remember that the person whose work is copied is also considered responsible for violating academic integrity principles. Take special care to protect your files, directories, and systems appropriately, and be sure to discard printouts so they cannot be retrieved by others (e. g., do not discard printouts in public recycling or garbage bins until after the assignment due date is passed).

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The “+=” and the “-=” functions add or subtract integers together before assigning them to the variable. Therefore, exampleVariableTwo += 5; is actually the same as the statement exampleVariableTwo = exampleVariableTwo + 5;. exampleVariableTwo increases by a value of 3 as a result of the program because it adds 5 and subtracts 2 before printing.

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What is an assignment in computer science example?

An assignment is a statement in computer programming that is used to set a value to a variable name . The operator used to do assignment is denoted with an equal sign (=). This operand works by assigning the value on the right-hand side of the operand to the operand on the left-hand side.

What does assignment mean in programming?

In order to change the data value stored in a variable , you use an operation called assignment. This causes the value to be copied into a memory location, overwriting what was in there before. Different values may be assigned to a variable at different times during the execution of a program.

What is assignment in Python?

An assignment statement evaluates the expression list (remember that this can be a single expression or a comma-separated list, the latter yielding a tuple) and assigns the single resulting object to each of the target lists, from left to right.

What is an assignment statement explain with an example?

An assignment statement gives a value to a variable . For example, x = 5; ... the variable may be a simple name, or an indexed location in an array, or a field (instance variable) of an object, or a static field of a class; and. the expression must result in a value that is compatible with the type of the variable .

What is an assignment in Java?

Assignment in Java is the process of giving a value to a primitive-type variable or giving an object reference to an object-type variable . The equals sign acts as assignment operator in Java, followed by the value to assign.

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Random Assignment in Psychology: Definition & Examples

Julia Simkus

Editor at Simply Psychology

BA (Hons) Psychology, Princeton University

Julia Simkus is a graduate of Princeton University with a Bachelor of Arts in Psychology. She is currently studying for a Master's Degree in Counseling for Mental Health and Wellness in September 2023. Julia's research has been published in peer reviewed journals.

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Saul Mcleod, PhD

Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology

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Saul Mcleod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including the Journal of Clinical Psychology.

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Associate Editor for Simply Psychology

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Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology. She has previously worked in healthcare and educational sectors.

In psychology, random assignment refers to the practice of allocating participants to different experimental groups in a study in a completely unbiased way, ensuring each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any group.

In experimental research, random assignment, or random placement, organizes participants from your sample into different groups using randomization. 

Random assignment uses chance procedures to ensure that each participant has an equal opportunity of being assigned to either a control or experimental group.

The control group does not receive the treatment in question, whereas the experimental group does receive the treatment.

When using random assignment, neither the researcher nor the participant can choose the group to which the participant is assigned. This ensures that any differences between and within the groups are not systematic at the onset of the study. 

In a study to test the success of a weight-loss program, investigators randomly assigned a pool of participants to one of two groups.

Group A participants participated in the weight-loss program for 10 weeks and took a class where they learned about the benefits of healthy eating and exercise.

Group B participants read a 200-page book that explains the benefits of weight loss. The investigator randomly assigned participants to one of the two groups.

The researchers found that those who participated in the program and took the class were more likely to lose weight than those in the other group that received only the book.

Importance 

Random assignment ensures that each group in the experiment is identical before applying the independent variable.

In experiments , researchers will manipulate an independent variable to assess its effect on a dependent variable, while controlling for other variables. Random assignment increases the likelihood that the treatment groups are the same at the onset of a study.

Thus, any changes that result from the independent variable can be assumed to be a result of the treatment of interest. This is particularly important for eliminating sources of bias and strengthening the internal validity of an experiment.

Random assignment is the best method for inferring a causal relationship between a treatment and an outcome.

Random Selection vs. Random Assignment 

Random selection (also called probability sampling or random sampling) is a way of randomly selecting members of a population to be included in your study.

On the other hand, random assignment is a way of sorting the sample participants into control and treatment groups. 

Random selection ensures that everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected for the study. Once the pool of participants has been chosen, experimenters use random assignment to assign participants into groups. 

Random assignment is only used in between-subjects experimental designs, while random selection can be used in a variety of study designs.

Random Assignment vs Random Sampling

Random sampling refers to selecting participants from a population so that each individual has an equal chance of being chosen. This method enhances the representativeness of the sample.

Random assignment, on the other hand, is used in experimental designs once participants are selected. It involves allocating these participants to different experimental groups or conditions randomly.

This helps ensure that any differences in results across groups are due to manipulating the independent variable, not preexisting differences among participants.

When to Use Random Assignment

Random assignment is used in experiments with a between-groups or independent measures design.

In these research designs, researchers will manipulate an independent variable to assess its effect on a dependent variable, while controlling for other variables.

There is usually a control group and one or more experimental groups. Random assignment helps ensure that the groups are comparable at the onset of the study.

How to Use Random Assignment

There are a variety of ways to assign participants into study groups randomly. Here are a handful of popular methods: 

• Random Number Generator : Give each member of the sample a unique number; use a computer program to randomly generate a number from the list for each group.
• Lottery : Give each member of the sample a unique number. Place all numbers in a hat or bucket and draw numbers at random for each group.
• Flipping a Coin : Flip a coin for each participant to decide if they will be in the control group or experimental group (this method can only be used when you have just two groups) 
• Roll a Die : For each number on the list, roll a dice to decide which of the groups they will be in. For example, assume that rolling 1, 2, or 3 places them in a control group and rolling 3, 4, 5 lands them in an experimental group.

When is Random Assignment not used?

• When it is not ethically permissible: Randomization is only ethical if the researcher has no evidence that one treatment is superior to the other or that one treatment might have harmful side effects. 
• When answering non-causal questions : If the researcher is just interested in predicting the probability of an event, the causal relationship between the variables is not important and observational designs would be more suitable than random assignment. 
• When studying the effect of variables that cannot be manipulated: Some risk factors cannot be manipulated and so it would not make any sense to study them in a randomized trial. For example, we cannot randomly assign participants into categories based on age, gender, or genetic factors.

Drawbacks of Random Assignment

While randomization assures an unbiased assignment of participants to groups, it does not guarantee the equality of these groups. There could still be extraneous variables that differ between groups or group differences that arise from chance. Additionally, there is still an element of luck with random assignments.

Thus, researchers can not produce perfectly equal groups for each specific study. Differences between the treatment group and control group might still exist, and the results of a randomized trial may sometimes be wrong, but this is absolutely okay.

Scientific evidence is a long and continuous process, and the groups will tend to be equal in the long run when data is aggregated in a meta-analysis.

Additionally, external validity (i.e., the extent to which the researcher can use the results of the study to generalize to the larger population) is compromised with random assignment.

Random assignment is challenging to implement outside of controlled laboratory conditions and might not represent what would happen in the real world at the population level. 

Random assignment can also be more costly than simple observational studies, where an investigator is just observing events without intervening with the population.

Randomization also can be time-consuming and challenging, especially when participants refuse to receive the assigned treatment or do not adhere to recommendations. 

What is the difference between random sampling and random assignment?

Random sampling refers to randomly selecting a sample of participants from a population. Random assignment refers to randomly assigning participants to treatment groups from the selected sample.

Does random assignment increase internal validity?

Yes, random assignment ensures that there are no systematic differences between the participants in each group, enhancing the study’s internal validity .

Does random assignment reduce sampling error?

Yes, with random assignment, participants have an equal chance of being assigned to either a control group or an experimental group, resulting in a sample that is, in theory, representative of the population.

Random assignment does not completely eliminate sampling error because a sample only approximates the population from which it is drawn. However, random sampling is a way to minimize sampling errors. 

When is random assignment not possible?

Random assignment is not possible when the experimenters cannot control the treatment or independent variable.

For example, if you want to compare how men and women perform on a test, you cannot randomly assign subjects to these groups.

Participants are not randomly assigned to different groups in this study, but instead assigned based on their characteristics.

Does random assignment eliminate confounding variables?

Yes, random assignment eliminates the influence of any confounding variables on the treatment because it distributes them at random among the study groups. Randomization invalidates any relationship between a confounding variable and the treatment.

Why is random assignment of participants to treatment conditions in an experiment used?

Random assignment is used to ensure that all groups are comparable at the start of a study. This allows researchers to conclude that the outcomes of the study can be attributed to the intervention at hand and to rule out alternative explanations for study results.

Further Reading

• Bogomolnaia, A., & Moulin, H. (2001). A new solution to the random assignment problem .  Journal of Economic theory ,  100 (2), 295-328.
• Krause, M. S., & Howard, K. I. (2003). What random assignment does and does not do .  Journal of Clinical Psychology ,  59 (7), 751-766.

Definition of 'assignment'

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Definition of assignment noun from the Oxford Advanced American Dictionary

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• Assignment Statement

An Assignment statement is a statement that is used to set a value to the variable name in a program .

Assignment statement allows a variable to hold different types of values during its program lifespan. Another way of understanding an assignment statement is, it stores a value in the memory location which is denoted by a variable name.

The symbol used in an assignment statement is called as an operator . The symbol is ‘=’ .

Note: The Assignment Operator should never be used for Equality purpose which is double equal sign ‘==’.

The Basic Syntax of Assignment Statement in a programming language is :

variable = expression ;

variable = variable name

expression = it could be either a direct value or a math expression/formula or a function call

Few programming languages such as Java, C, C++ require data type to be specified for the variable, so that it is easy to allocate memory space and store those values during program execution.

data_type variable_name = value ;

In the above-given examples, Variable ‘a’ is assigned a value in the same statement as per its defined data type. A data type is only declared for Variable ‘b’. In the 3 rd line of code, Variable ‘a’ is reassigned the value 25. The 4 th line of code assigns the value for Variable ‘b’.

Assignment Statement Forms

This is one of the most common forms of Assignment Statements. Here the Variable name is defined, initialized, and assigned a value in the same statement. This form is generally used when we want to use the Variable quite a few times and we do not want to change its value very frequently.

Tuple Assignment

Generally, we use this form when we want to define and assign values for more than 1 variable at the same time. This saves time and is an easy method. Note that here every individual variable has a different value assigned to it.

(Code In Python)

Sequence Assignment

(Code in Python)

Multiple-target Assignment or Chain Assignment

In this format, a single value is assigned to two or more variables.

Augmented Assignment

In this format, we use the combination of mathematical expressions and values for the Variable. Other augmented Assignment forms are: &=, -=, **=, etc.

Browse more Topics Under Data Types, Variables and Constants

• Concept of Data types
• Built-in Data Types
• Constants in Programing Language 
• Access Modifier
• Variables of Built-in-Datatypes
• Declaration/Initialization of Variables
• Type Modifier

Few Rules for Assignment Statement

Few Rules to be followed while writing the Assignment Statements are:

• Variable names must begin with a letter, underscore, non-number character. Each language has its own conventions.
• The Data type defined and the variable value must match.
• A variable name once defined can only be used once in the program. You cannot define it again to store other types of value.
• If you assign a new value to an existing variable, it will overwrite the previous value and assign the new value.

FAQs on Assignment Statement

Q1. Which of the following shows the syntax of an  assignment statement ?

• variablename = expression ;
• expression = variable ;
• datatype = variablename ;
• expression = datatype variable ;

Answer – Option A.

Q2. What is an expression ?

• Same as statement
• List of statements that make up a program
• Combination of literals, operators, variables, math formulas used to calculate a value
• Numbers expressed in digits

Answer – Option C.

Q3. What are the two steps that take place when an  assignment statement  is executed?

• Evaluate the expression, store the value in the variable
• Reserve memory, fill it with value
• Evaluate variable, store the result
• Store the value in the variable, evaluate the expression.

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Meaning of assignment – Learner’s Dictionary

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What Is Citizen Science? History, Practices, and Impact

Lisa has been writing for Dotdash Meredith since 2005 and works with a wide range of educational publishers, conservation nonprofits, and research institutions. She has written for science museums, nature centers, zoos, and state parks.

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History of Citizen Science

Impact of citizen science, how to get involved with citizen science.

Citizen science is the practice of involving non-scientists in practical, meaningful scientific research projects. The best-known examples of citizen science include bird observations and weather tracking—but these are only the tip of the iceberg.

Citizen science has been popular for well over a century, but in recent years, the internet has revolutionized scientists' ability to reach out to and engage citizen scientists in a huge array of research projects. Input from citizen scientists is crucial to certain forms of research; without their participation, many projects would be impractical or even impossible.

It's important to note that citizen science is different from amateur research. For example, a dinosaur enthusiast may spend a great deal of time and effort finding, identifying, and collecting fossils. But if their work is not connected to a larger research study run by a professional science organization, it is not considered citizen science.

You can't have citizen science without professional scientists, which means that there were no citizen scientists during the Renaissance or Age of Enlightenment. Instead, there were amateur and "gentlemen" scientists, like Thomas Jefferson, who studied various aspects of the natural world. It wasn't until the 1800s that the concept of a "professional" scientist emerged—and the opportunity for citizen science evolved.

The First Citizen Scientists

The first true citizen science project was launched by ornithologist Wells Cooke. He reached out to amateur birding enthusiasts to collect information about bird migration. His program evolved into the government-run North American Bird Phenology Program . Information collected by volunteers was collected on cards; those cards are still available and are now being scanned into a public database. The database will provide important historical information about changes to migratory patterns.

Another very early bird-oriented citizen science project is Audubon's Christmas Bird Count . Every year since 1900, the Audubon has asked citizens to observe and collect information about local birds between Dec. 14 and Jan. 5. The Christmas Bird Count has been going on for over a century and is now a nationwide project with more than 2,000 amateur birding groups participating.

Citizen Science Before the Internet

While some types of research can be accomplished by a single scientist in a lab, many other types rely on the collection of very large amounts of data. Certain types of data collection are especially appropriate for citizen scientists, particularly when they require relatively simple tools that are available to non-professionals. In some cases, citizen science groups were able to organize volunteers. Citizen scientists were employed in particular fields including:

• Stream and waterway monitoring
• Insect and bird observations
• Weather monitoring
• Astronomical observation
• Observations of plants and wildlife

In some cases, citizen scientists made it possible to collect a great many data points, making meaningful analysis possible. In others, the observations of multiple people in multiple locations made it possible to observe natural trends.

In the case of astronomical observation, it's not possible for one person to watch the entire sky every night—but hundreds of people can do just that. As a result, citizen scientists have actually discovered comets and other astronomical objects that professionals missed.

Citizen Science and Technology

By the late 1990s, the internet was available to a very large group of people around the world—and the concept of "crowd-sourcing" was beginning to emerge. Scientists saw the potential for engaging an international community of citizen scientists with the skills to upload information to a database from anywhere. Perhaps just as importantly, it became possible to instantly reach out to specialized groups with specific skills, qualities, and interests.

Another major innovation for citizen science was the smartphone. Apps now allow citizen scientists to actually perform research that would have required specialized equipment in the past. With the right apps, citizen scientists can easily identify plants and animals, measure temperature and air quality, identify colors and textures, and much more—all without spending money on research tools. Citizen scientists also use an array of smartphone "built-ins" such as GPS receivers and cameras, which greatly enhance the value of their findings.

Today, many institutions create opportunities for citizen scientists to get involved. From the Smithsonian's eMammal camera trap project to NASA's huge range of options , the world of citizen science has expanded dramatically.

Citizen science has had a significant impact on research outcomes in recent years. In fact, according to a study, citizen science data is generally of high quality and offers a range of advantages to researchers seeking "big data" for analysis.   Citizen science also offers a number of other positive outcomes :

• It involves stakeholder citizens in learning about their local environment and about science in general.
• It provides students with opportunities to take a meaningful role in the process of scientific research, sometimes leading to careers in STEM.
• It improves science literacy in general.

Today, as more projects are developed with citizen scientists in mind, researchers are also developing research and training opportunities for citizen scientists of all ages. This promises to improve outcomes both for the researchers and the citizen scientists themselves.

Today's citizen science opportunities are as wide-ranging as science itself. That can make it tricky to choose the right projects for you or your family. Before getting started, ask yourself these questions:

• Which area of science interests you? Are you interested in animals? Waterways? Stars? Medicine? Climate change ? Plants ?
• How much time do you want to dedicate to citizen science? Some projects require just a few minutes while others require dedicated involvement over months or even years.
• How "science-y" do you want to get? Some projects require training and mastery of technology while others can be completed with a simple stroll around the backyard.
• What kind of activity interests you? The range of options is huge. You can review historical science documents, scan the skies for comets, test the water in your local pond, identify birds in your neighborhood, run your own weather station...
• Do you want to involve your kids? Some citizen science projects are easy and engaging for kids; others not so much.
• Do you want to work independently or as part of a larger organization? You can join projects and work on your own, or get together with volunteers.
• Do you want to work online or in the "real" world? There are plenty of remote, online citizen science opportunities available.
• What kind of organization interests you? You can do citizen science for research centers, non-profits like National Geographic and the Smithsonian, or join federal agencies like the EPA .
• Do you want to stay local, or do you want to be part of an international research effort?

Once you've answered all those questions, you can use an interactive citizen science database to find the opportunity that's right for you. Some citizen science databases are specialized while others allow you to search through a wide range of possibilities. Here are some databases to check out:

• SciStarter is a searchable database of citizen science projects that run the gamut from fun activities for kids to highly sophisticated projects that require training. You can search by topic (dogs, planets, etc.), by location, and by many other variables.
• CitSci.org like SciStarter, CitSci offers a large database of projects of all shapes and sizes.
• CitizenScience.gov allows you to search through a huge range of projects offered by the EPA, NASA, NOAA, the National Park Service, and many other agencies.

de Sherbinin, Alex, et al. " The Critical Importance of Citizen Science Data ."  Frontiers in Climate , vol. 3, 2021, doi:10.3389/fclim.2021.650760

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Political Science: Meaning, Nature, Scopes, and Importance [7points]

When you are going to start the study of Political Science, the first thing you should know is the meaning nature, and scope of political science . Here I have explained each and every part of your query.

Human knowledge is basically divided into two extensive categories. One is Natural Science and the other one is Social Science.

Natural science deals with the physical world such as land, weather, water, forests, etc, whereas social science deals with the human being, their collective social life, and activities.

Humans have a multidimensional social life such as economic, political, historical, sociological, etc.

Table of Contents

What is Political Science?

Political science is a part of social science that deals with the political problems of human beings and the subject matter of political science is political institutions (State, Government, Judiciary, Parliament, Pressure groups, Political Parties , etc.),  Political behavior, and activities of humans, etc. It is also related to other social science subjects like history, sociology, philosophy, economics, etc. 

Meaning and Definition of Political Science

Political science is the combination of two words one is Political and another one is science .

Political refers to power and authority. That is, everything related to power and authority is political. For example, all institutions (State, Government, Judiciary, Parliament, Pressure groups, Political Parties, etc) and actions of humans related to power are subject to politics.

The English word ‘Science’ comes from the Latin word ‘Scientia’, which means knowledge that is acquired by systematic study.

Must Read- Is Political Science A Science? [3 Reasons]

So It means a systematic study of political institutions, the political behavior of human beings, political systems, international relations, and all the issues related to power and authority.

The famous Greek philosopher Aristotle said that “ Man is by nature a political animal…he who is unable to live in a society or who has no need because he is sufficient for himself, must be either a beast or God ”.

He is considered the father of political science because he is the first person who has defined politics using scientific methods.

The definition of political science is determined by the scope of its field of discussion. The scope of political science has been discussed in the last part of the writing.

The problems of people’s political life are increasing. As time has passed, people’s political thinking has developed more and more.

As a result, the number and variety of definitions of political science are increasing exponentially. There is no universal definition in any social science subject. Since it is a part of social science is also a dynamic science, so its definition is also dynamic.

There are two views to define political science. One is the Traditional View and the other one is the Modern view.

Traditional Definition of Political Science

All the concepts of political science before the nineteenth century belong to the traditional view. And the entire political scientists at that time is called traditional political scientists.

According to traditional political scientists , it deals with the state, Government, and other political institutions.

An American Professor Garner once said that ‘ political science begins and ends with the state ’.  In his view, political science is the social science that determines some formula about the origin and form of the state, the shape, nature, and history of political institutions, and political progress and development.

So in the traditional view, it discusses the origin, nature, ideals, and goals, of the state.

Here are some definitions by different authors of the traditional view

Political science is a historical investigation of what the state has been, an analytical study of what the state is, and a politico-ethical discussion of what the state should be. R.G Gettel ,

Political Science investigates the phenomena of the government as political economy deals with wealth, biology with life, algebra with numbers, and geometry with space and magnitude John Robert Seeley

Political Science is that part of the social science which treats of the foundations of the sate and principles of the government Paul Janet

Political science deals with the origin, development, purpose, and all political problems of the states. Garies

Political science is concerned with the state and with conditions essential for its development. Lord Acton

If you read the above definitions of traditional political scientists carefully then you have noticed that every definition of political science is concentrated on state and government.

So it is clear that in the traditional view, the field of discussion of political science was confined to the state and the government.

Modern Definition of Political Science

The flow of international events now has a profound effect on individual and national life. For this reason, state activity cannot be neutral to the flow of international events and customs.

The social and political relations of the socialized people, the relations of the state with the individual under the state, the relations of the social institution with the individual, and the interrelationships between different states, etc. are included in the modern view of political science.

The modern view of political science refers to the view of political scientists who emerges at the beginning of the twentieth century.

According to modern political scientists like George Catlin, Charles Marriam, Almond, Powell, and David Easton, political science not only deals with the state and government.

It has a broader area that also deals with individual’s political behavior, Political Power, Society, Political Culture, Political Socialization, International Laws, and International Relations, Political systems, Political Processes, and other political groups.

Must-Read- Political Culture: Meaning, Features, 4 Types, And Importance

Here are some definitions by different authors of the modern view

Politics is the study of Influence and the influential Lasswell

Political Science concern itself with the life of men in relation to organized state Laski

David Easton defines political science as an Authoritative allocation of values. He has not seen it as a discussion of state institutions but presents this as a discussion of a political system or process.

Politics is the struggle for power or the influencing of those power. Max Weber

Acceptable Definition of Political Science

As I said, there is no universal definition of it. But from the discussion of the traditional and modern view of political science, it could have an acceptable definition.

Political science is a part of social science in which the philosophical, organizational, and administrative context of the state and politics, the context of national and international, legal and organizational relations, and the comparative context of multiple political systems are scientifically discussed and reviewed.

After completing the Meaning and definition of our topic “Meaning nature and scope of political science”, now it’s time for the Nature of Political Science .

Nature of Political Science

When you study political science, you see politics and political science are used interchangeably. Some political scientists use political theory and political philosophy and political science in the same way.

Again, many are reluctant to call it a science. In order to overcome such confusion, the nature of political science must be studied in a good way. So let’s start.

Political Theory, Political Philosophy, Politics, or Political Science?

The origin of the concept of the state is the need for human interaction. Political Theory includes various views and interpretations about the origin and development of the state, its nature, functions, organizations, and subsidiaries.

Must Read- Political Theory And Why Should We Study Political Theory?

Some basic questions about the nature and purpose of the state take place in the discussion of Political Philosophy .

Must Read – Meaning, History, Features, and Importance of Political Philosophy

Although the name politics is used more for the sake of popularity, political scientists are willing to use the name political science.

Many people want to use the name political science in order to ensure that the discussion of politics does not become a futile policy, but prevails in practical politics.

Political science, like science, has the potential for observation, experience, analysis, and classification. It teaches us how it is possible to analyze political and humanitarian issues in the light of empirical and observational methods.

Scope of Political Science

As I said before, it is a dynamic and social science. That’s why it’s scope or subject matter is always changing.

Until the nineteenth century, its field of discussion was state-centered. At present, the state and any other issues that touch people’s political life are included in the discussion of political science.

So the Scope of political science can be divided into two categories.

• State-Centric
• Non-State-Centric

State-Centric discussion

The state is the ultimate expression of socialized life. People’s political life revolves around the state. As a result, the personality of the socialized people develops, and peaceful social life is possible. So there is no doubt that the state is the central subject of political science.

1. Study of Government

This state was again embodied through the government. The state cannot be imagined without the government. The state fulfilled its goals through the government. So the discussion of the state as well as the government becomes necessary.

2. Study of the history of the State

The idea of the present state remains incomplete if we do not discuss the history of the state. In the context of the past and present discussion of the state, it is necessary to see how this institution evolved from the past to the present.

3. Study of Laws

In addition to the state and the government, laws enacted by the government are also included in the discussion of political science. The government passes laws on behalf of the state and maintains peace. So the discussion of law is another matter of political science.

4. Study of International Relations and International laws

At present, the interaction between the citizen and the state is influenced by multiple issues. The flow of international events affects national life.

So, it also deals with international relations and international laws. It includes international organizations like the United Nations, International Monetary Fund, and The World Bank.

5. Study of theoretical and applied political science

Theoretical discussions of political science are about the origin, nature, ideology, independence, law, etc. of the state.

On the other hand, the classification of government, functions, legislation, functions of political institutions, international customs, treaties, and diplomacy are the main topics of applied discussion in it.

Non-State-Centric Discussion

Modern political scientists think that at present political science deals not only with the state but with non-governmental organizations and individuals or groups of political activities, pressure groups, etc. So let’s discuss this in detail.

Must Read- Pressure Group: Meaning, Definitions, Features, & 4Types

1. Study of Influence and Influential

The study of politics is the study of influence and the influential. Lasswell

Many times a person is getting others to work on what he wants. In this case, the person who did it is called influential and the power of the influential is called influence.

Similarly, a special relationship between an individual, a group, an organization, and a state is called influence.

influence is a relation among actors in which one actor induces other actors to act in some way they would not otherwise act. Robart Dahl

In modern times many political scientists have emphasized influence as a subject of political science. The tendency of behavioral statesmen is particularly observed. According to them, the influential people of society control the distribution of goods or values.

And this is exactly the reason why it is necessary to discuss political science with influence and influential.

2. Study of Conflict and Disagreement

Conflict lies at the heart of politics. In a world of universal agreement, there would be no room for it. J.D.B Miller

Disagreements and disputes create politics. That means the political situation is created when the work on which there is disagreement is organized. And that is when the law needs to be created and enacted.

According to eminent scientists, politics prevails when there is disagreement. And politics is about resolving that conflict.

So it can be said that it also deals with the conflict and disagreements which are occurred in any society and finding out the resolution of those conflicts.

3. Study of Authoritative Allocation of Values

According to Political scientist David Easton ,  it deals with the authoritative allocation of values. “ Political Science be described as the study of the authoritative allocation of values for society” .

Here are three words in the above sentence. These are Value, Allocation, and Authoritative.

The word value here refers to the needs and wants of socialized people. What is valuable to a person is what he needs. It is not possible to meet all the needs of all people in any society because every society has a shortage of resources.

So it meets the needs of some people. Conflict begins among members of society to meet their own needs. Conflict resolution is needed to prevent social crises as a result of this conflict.

Society has to constantly decide how much car needs to be met on the basis of limited resources. That is, in Easton’s language, how the value will be fixed or how its allocation will be.

Authority makes this important decision for society. The process of making this decision by the authority is called the allocation of values.

4. Study of Political Dynamics

The study of political dynamics is very important because it deals with the current forces at work in government and politics. It includes the study of political parties, pressure groups, public opinion, lobbies, etc.

Importance of Political Science

The study of political science is very important and significant in this socio-economic-political society. By studying it people can know how and why the state is organized and why its constitution is justified.

It makes people more conscious about their rights and duties. Those who know political science, always take useful part in social and political affairs.

Robert Dahl rightly said that “ A citizen encounters politics in the government of a country, town, school, church, business firm, trade union, club, political party, civic association and a host of organizations. Politics is one of the unavoidable facts of human existence. Everyone is involved in some fashion at some time in some kind of political system .”

After knowing about the meaning nature and scope of political science, you have realized some basic points which tell you why to study it. or what is the importance of political science ?

1. Understand Citizenship

It enables you to understand the relationship between an individual or citizen and the state. Citizen participates in the decision-making process of governance in the name of election and forms a government under which they are governed.

2. Know the Political Thoughts and Ideas of the Eminent Political Thinkers

We are influenced by the ideas of political thinkers like Plato, Aristotle, Hobbes, Karl Marx, etc. and it helps us to understand the present political problem and allow us to find out the solution to those problems.

3. Make Citizen Conscious of Their Rights and Duties

I have already said that it allows us to understand our rights and duties in the society we live. Rights are the most important aspect of any individual.

Rights are the one that helps individuals to grow in terms of their talent. Besides this, it also tells citizens about their duties to society.

4. Understands Recent Trends in the World

It also allows us to understand the current trends in the world. By the study of political science, we can search for what is happening around us. This is the era of globalization. And globalization affects our daily life but how? To solve this question we have to study it.

5. Understand the Role of Government, Political Parties, and Pressure Groups

What should be the role of a political party and how do pressure groups affect the decision-making process of the government? 

It gives you clear ideas of these questions that help you to understand how the government is formed, what’s your role in the decision-making process of the government, etc.

So it can be said that a modern man cannot be perfect without knowing facts about political science. In simple importance it is precious. It improves our living standards.

After a long discussion on the Meaning Nature and Scope of Political Science, it can be concluded that it is the branch of social science in which we study the state, government, political theory, politics, political institutions, the life of political man, international relations, laws and organizations, influence and influential, authoritative allocation of values, etc.

So it can be said that it is a dynamic science which means the nature and scope of political science are extensive and always changeable. It empowers us to think differently about our society as a political as well as a social animal.

Let me share your experience with what you have learned in “ Meaning Nature and Scope of Political Science “.

Share this with the needful students as much as you can. Thank you.

• Mahajan, V.  Political theory . 5th ed. India: S Chand & Company Ltd, 2015.
• Easton, David. The Political System-An Inquiry into the Study of Political Science , New York, 1971.
• Hacker, Andrew. Political Theory , New York, 1961.
• Dahl, Robert A. A Preface to Democratic Theory , Chicago, 1967.

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17 thoughts on “Political Science: Meaning, Nature, Scopes, and Importance [7points]”

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