world hunger research paper

The global challenge of hidden hunger: perspectives from the field

Affiliation.

• 1 UCLan Research Centre for Global Development, University of Central Lancashire, Preston, UK.
• PMID: 33896431
• DOI: 10.1017/S0029665121000902

The aim of this review paper is to explore the strategies employed to tackle micronutrient deficiencies with illustrations from field-based experience. Hidden hunger is the presence of multiple micronutrient deficiencies (particularly iron, zinc, iodine and vitamin A), which can occur without a deficit in energy intake as a result of consuming an energy-dense, but nutrient-poor diet. It is estimated that it affects more than two billion people worldwide, particularly in low- and middle-income countries where there is a reliance on low-cost food staples and where the diversity of the diet is limited. Finding a way to improve the nutritional quality of diets for the poorest people is central to meeting the UN sustainable development goals particularly sustainable development goal 2: end hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture. As we pass the midpoint of the UN's Decade for Action on Nutrition, it is timely to reflect on progress towards achieving sustainable development goal 2 and the strategies to reduce hidden hunger. Many low- and middle-income countries are falling behind national nutrition targets, and this has been exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic as well as other recent shocks to the global food system which have disproportionately impacted the world's most vulnerable communities. Addressing inequalities within the food system must be central to developing a sustainable, cost-effective strategy for improving food quality that delivers benefit to the seldom heard and marginalised communities.

Keywords: Biofortification; Dietary supplementation; Micronutrient intake; Sustainable development goals.

Publication types

• Research Support, Non-U.S. Gov't
• Agriculture
• Biofortification
• Dietary Supplements
• Food Security
• Food, Fortified
• Global Health*
• Malnutrition / epidemiology*
• Malnutrition / prevention & control*
• Micronutrients / deficiency*
• Nutritional Status
• Nutritive Value
• United Nations
• Micronutrients

• Methodology
• Issues in Focus
• Country Case Studies
• Policy Recommendations

The Power of Youth in Shaping Food Systems

Key figures, key messages, the 2023 global hunger index shows that while some countries have made significant headway in reducing hunger little progress has been made on a global scale since 2015: hunger remains serious or alarming in 43 countries..

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This stagnation relative to 2015 largely reflects the combined effects of several crises. These include the COVID-19 pandemic, the Russia-Ukraine war, economic stagnation, the impacts of climate change, and the intractable conflicts facing many countries of the world.

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Large demographic groups such as youth, especially in low- and middle-income countries, are disproportionally affected. While youth will inherit food systems that are unable to meet the needs of people and planet, their participation in making decisions that will affect their future is limited.

Read this year’s guest Essay on the critical role of youth in shaping food systems by Wendy Geza and Mendy Ndlovu (Centre for Transformative Agricultural and Food Systems, School of Agricultural, Earth, and Environmental Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa) »

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A global food crisis

Conflict, economic shocks, climate extremes and soaring fertilizer prices are combining to create a food crisis of unprecedented proportions. As many as 783 million people are facing chronic hunger. We have a choice: act now to save lives and invest in solutions that secure food security, stability and peace for all, or see people around the world facing rising hunger. 

2023: Another year of extreme jeopardy for those struggling to feed their families

The scale of the current global hunger and malnutrition crisis is enormous. WFP estimates – from 78 of the countries where it works (and where data is available) – that more than 333 million people are facing acute levels of food insecurity in 2023, and do not know where their next meal is coming from.  This constitutes a staggering rise of almost 200 million people compared to pre-COVID-19 pandemic levels. 

At least 129,000 people are expected to experience famine in Burkina Faso, Mali, Somalia and South Sudan. Furthermore, any fragile progress already made in reducing numbers risks being lost, due to funding gaps and resulting cuts in assistance.  The global community must not fail on its promise to end hunger and malnutrition by 2030.   

WFP is facing multiple challenges – the number of acutely hungry people continues to increase at a pace that funding is unlikely to match , while the  cost of delivering food assistance is at an all-time high  because food and fuel prices have increased.  

Unmet needs heighten the risk of hunger and malnutrition. Unless the necessary resources are made available,  lost lives and the reversal of hard-earned development gains  will be the price to pay. 

The causes of hunger and famine

But why is the world  hungrier than ever? 

This seismic hunger crisis has been caused by a deadly combination of factors. 

Conflict is still the biggest driver of hunger, with 70 percent of the world's hungry people living in areas afflicted by war  and violence. Events in Ukraine are further proof of how conflict feeds hunger – forcing people out of their homes, wiping out their sources of income and wrecking countries’ economies. 

The climate crisis is one of the leading causes of the steep rise in global hunger.  Climate shocks destroy lives, crops and livelihoods, and undermine people’s ability to feed themselves.  Hunger will spiral out of control if the world fails to take immediate climate action. 

Global fertilizer prices have climbed even faster than food prices, which remain at a ten-year high themselves. The effects of the war in Ukraine, including higher natural gas prices, have further disrupted global fertilizer production and exports – reducing supplies, raising prices and threatening to reduce harvests.  High fertilizer prices could turn the current food affordability crisis into a food availability crisis, with production of maize, rice, soybean and wheat all falling in 2022. 

On top of increased operational costs , WFP is facing a major drop in funding in 2023 compared to the previous year, reflecting the new and more challenging financial landscape that the entire humanitarian sector is navigating. As a result, assistance levels are well below those of 2022. Almost half of WFP country operations have already been forced to cut the size and scope of food, cash and nutrition assistance by up to 50 percent.

WFP Annual Review 2022

Publication | 23 June 2023

WFP and FAO sound the alarm as global food crisis tightens its grip on hunger hotspots

Story | 21 September 2022

WFP scales up support to most vulnerable in global food crisis

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Hunger hotspots

From the Central American Dry Corridor and Haiti, through the Sahel, Central African Republic, South Sudan and then eastwards to the Horn of Africa, Syria, Yemen and all the way to Afghanistan,  conflict and climate shocks are driving millions of people to the brink of starvation. 

Last year, the world rallied extraordinary resources – a record-breaking US$14.1 billion for WFP alone – to tackle the unprecedented global food crisis. In countries like Somalia, which has been  teetering on the brink of famine,  the international community came together and managed to pull people back. But it is not sufficient to only keep people alive. We need to go further, and  this can only be achieved by addressing the underlying causes of hunger. 

The consequences of not investing in resilience activities will reverberate across borders. If communities are not empowered to withstand shocks and stresses, this could result in  increased migration and possible destabilization and conflict.  Recent history has shown us this: when WFP ran out of funds to feed Syrian refugees in 2015, they had no choice but to leave the camps and seek help elsewhere, causing one of the  greatest refugee crises in recent European history.  

Let's stop hunger now

WFP’s changing lives work helps to build human capital, support governments in strengthening social protection programmes, stabilize communities in particularly precarious places, and help them to better survive sudden shocks without losing all their assets. 

In just four years of the  Sahel Resilience Scale-up, WFP and local communities turned 158,000 hectares of barren fields in the Sahel region of five African countries into farm and grazing land.  Over 2.5 million people benefited from integrated activities.  Evidence shows that people are better equipped to withstand seasonal shocks and have improved access to vital natural resources like land they can work.  Families and their homes, belongings and fields are better protected against climate hazards.  Support serves as a buffer to instability by bringing people together, creating social safety nets, keeping lands productive and offering job opportunities – all of which help to break the cycle of hunger. 

As a further example, WFP’s flagship microinsurance programme – the R4 Rural Resilience initiative –  protects around 360,000 farming and pastoralist families from climate hazards that threaten crops and livelihoods  in 14 countries including Bangladesh, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Fiji, Guatemala, Kenya, Madagascar and Zimbabwe. 

At the same time, WFP is working with governments in 83 countries to boost or build  national safety nets and nutrition-sensitive social protection, allowing us to reach more people than we can with emergency food assistance.  

Humanitarian assistance alone is not enough though. A  coordinated effort across governments, financial institutions, the private sector and partners is the only way to mitigate an even more severe crisis in 2023.  Good governance is a golden thread that holds society together, allowing human capital to grow, economies to develop and people to thrive.  

The world also needs deeper political engagement to reach zero hunger.  Only political will can end conflict in places like Yemen, Ethiopia and South Sudan, and without a firm political commitment to contain global warming as stipulated in the  Paris Agreement , the main drivers of hunger will continue unabated. 

In 2023, hunger levels are higher than ever before

Help families facing unprecedented hunger

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Un report: global hunger numbers rose to as many as 828 million in 2021, the latest state of food security and nutrition report shows the world is moving backwards in efforts to eliminate hunger and malnutrition.

ROME/NEW YORK, 6 July 2022 - The number of people affected by hunger globally rose to as many as 828 million in 2021, an increase of about 46 million since 2020 and 150 million since the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic (1), according to a United Nations report that provides fresh evidence that the world is moving further away from its goal of ending hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition in all its forms by 2030. 

The 2022 edition of The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World (SOFI) report presents updates on the food security and nutrition situation around the world, including the latest estimates of the cost and affordability of a healthy diet. The report also looks at ways in which governments can repurpose their current support to agriculture to reduce the cost of healthy diets, mindful of the limited public resources available in many parts of the world.

The report was jointly published today by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD), the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), the UN World Food Programme (WFP) and the World Health Organization (WHO).

The numbers paint a grim picture:

• As many as 828 million  people were affected by hunger in 2021 –  46 million  people more from a year earlier and 150 million more from 2019.
• After remaining relatively unchanged since 2015, the proportion of people affected by hunger jumped in 2020 and continued to rise in 2021, to 9.8 percent of the world population. This compares with 8 percent in 2019 and 9.3 percent in 2020.
• Around 2.3 billion people in the world ( 29.3 percent) were moderately or severely food insecure in 2021 – 350 million more compared to before the outbreak of the COVID‑19 pandemic. Nearly 924 million people ( 11.7 percent of the global population) faced food insecurity at severe levels, an increase of 207 million in two years.
• The gender gap in food insecurity continued to rise in 2021 - 31.9 percent of women in the world were moderately or severely food insecure, compared to 27.6 percent of men – a gap of more than 4 percentage points, compared with 3 percentage points in 2020.
• Almost 3.1 billion people could not afford a healthy diet in 2020, up 112 million from 2019, reflecting the effects of inflation in consumer food prices stemming from the economic impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and the measures put in place to contain it. 
• An estimated 45 million children under the age of five were suffering from wasting, the deadliest form of malnutrition, which increases children’s risk of death by up to 12 times. Furthermore, 149 million children under the age of five had stunted growth and development due to a chronic lack of essential nutrients in their diets, while 39 million were overweight.
• Progress is being made on exclusive breastfeeding, with nearly 44 percent of infants under six months of age being exclusively breastfed worldwide in 2020. This is still short of the 50 percent target by 2030. Of great concern, two in three children are not fed the minimum diverse diet they need to grow and develop to their full potential.
• Looking forward, projections are that nearly 670 million people ( 8 percent of the world population) will still be facing hunger in 2030 – even if a global economic recovery is taken into consideration. This is a similar number to 2015, when the goal of ending hunger, food insecurity and malnutrition by the end of this decade was launched under the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development .

As this report is being published, the ongoing war in Ukraine, involving two of the biggest global producers of staple cereals, oilseeds and fertilizer, is disrupting international supply chains and pushing up the prices of grain, fertilizer, energy, as well as ready-to-use therapeutic food for children with severe malnutrition. This comes as supply chains are already being adversely affected by increasingly frequent extreme climate events, especially in low-income countries, and has potentially sobering implications for global food security and nutrition.

“This report repeatedly highlights the intensification of these major drivers of food insecurity and malnutrition: conflict, climate extremes and economic shocks, combined with growing inequalities,” the heads of the five UN agencies (2) wrote in this year's Foreword. “The issue at stake is not whether adversities will continue to occur or not, but how we must take bolder action to build resilience against future shocks.”

Repurposing agricultural policies

The report notes as striking that worldwide support for the food and agricultural sector averaged almost USD 630 billion a year between 2013 and 2018. The lion share of it goes to individual farmers, through trade and market policies and fiscal subsidies. However, not only is much of this support market-distorting, but it is not reaching many farmers, hurts the environment and does not promote the production of nutritious foods that make up a healthy diet. That's in part because subsidies often target the production of staple foods, dairy and other animal source foods, especially in high- and upper-middle-income countries. Rice, sugar and meats of various types are most incentivized food items worldwide, while fruits and vegetables are relatively less supported, particularly in some low-income countries.

With the threats of a global recession looming, and the implications this has on public revenues and expenditures, a way to support economic recovery involves the repurposing of food and agricultural support to target nutritious foods where per capita consumption does not yet match the recommended levels for healthy diets.

The evidence suggests that if governments repurpose the resources they are using to incentivize the production, supply and consumption of nutritious foods, they will contribute to making healthy diets less costly, more affordable and equitably for all.

Finally, the report also points out that governments could do more to reduce trade barriers for nutritious foods, such as fruits, vegetables and pulses.

(1) It is estimated that between 702 and 828 million people were affected by hunger in 2021.  The estimate is presented as a range to reflect the added uncertainty in data collection due to the COVID-19 pandemic and related restrictions . The increases are measured with reference to the middle of the projected range (768 million).

(2) For FAO - QU Dongyu, Director-General; for IFAD - Gilbert F. Houngbo, President; for UNICEF - Catherine Russell, Executive Director; for WFP - David Beasley, Executive Director; for WHO - Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, Director-General.

What they said

FAO Director-General QU Dongyu : “Low-income countries, where agriculture is key to the economy, jobs and rural livelihoods, have little public resources to repurpose. FAO is committed to continue working together with these countries to explore opportunities for increasing the provision of public services for all actors across agrifood systems.”

IFAD President Gilbert F. Houngbo : “These are depressing figures for humanity. We continue to move away from our goal of ending hunger by 2030. The ripple effects of the global food crisis will most likely worsen the outcome again next year. We need a more intense approach to end hunger and IFAD stands ready to do its part by scaling up its operations and impact. We look forward to having everyone's support.”

UNICEF Executive Director Catherine Russell : “The unprecedented scale of the malnutrition crisis demands an unprecedented response. We must double our efforts to ensure that the most vulnerable children have access to nutritious, safe, and affordable diets -- and services for the early prevention, detection and treatment of malnutrition. With so many children’s lives and futures at stake, this is the time to step up our ambition for child nutrition – and we have no time to waste.”

WFP Executive Director David Beasley : “There is a real danger these numbers will climb even higher in the months ahead. The global price spikes in food, fuel and fertilizers that we are seeing as a result of the crisis in Ukraine threaten to push countries around the world into famine. The result will be global destabilization, starvation, and mass migration on an unprecedented scale. We have to act today to avert this looming catastrophe.”

WHO Director-General Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus : “Every year, 11 million people die due to unhealthy diets. Rising food prices mean this will only get worse.  WHO supports countries’ efforts to improve food systems through taxing unhealthy foods and subsidising healthy options, protecting children from harmful marketing, and ensuring clear nutrition labels. We must work together to achieve the 2030 global nutrition targets, to fight hunger and malnutrition, and to ensure that food is a source of health for all.”

Acute food insecurity : food insecurity found in a specified area at a specific point in time and of a severity that threatens lives or livelihoods, or both, regardless of the causes, context or duration. Has relevance in providing strategic guidance to actions that focus on short-term objectives to prevent, mitigate or decrease severe food insecurity.

Hunger : an uncomfortable or painful sensation caused by insufficient energy from diet. Food deprivation. In this report, the term hunger is synonymous with chronic undernourishment and is measured by the prevalence of undernourishment (PoU).

Malnutrition : an abnormal physiological condition caused by inadequate, unbalanced or excessive intake of macronutrients and/or micronutrients. Malnutrition includes undernutrition (child stunting and wasting, and vitamin and mineral deficiencies) as well as overweight and obesity.

Moderate food insecurity : a level of severity of food insecurity at which people face uncertainties about their ability to obtain food and have been forced to reduce, at times during the year, the quality and/or quantity of food they consume due to lack of money or other resources. It refers to a lack of consistent access to food, which diminishes dietary quality and disrupts normal eating patterns. Measured based on the Food Insecurity Experience Scale.

Severe food insecurity : a level of severity of food insecurity at which, at some time during the year, people have run out of food, experienced hunger and at the most extreme, gone without food for a day or more. Measured based on the Food Insecurity Experience Scale.

Undernourishment: a condition in which an individual’s habitual food consumption is insufficient to provide the amount of dietary energy required to maintain a normal, active, healthy life. The prevalence of undernourishment is used to measure hunger (SDG indicator 2.1.1).

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Acute hunger remains persistently high in 59 countries with 1 in 5 people assessed in need of critical urgent action - Global Report on Food Crises

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October 13, 2020

Research offers path to end world hunger within decade

by Cornell University

The world's small-scale farmers now can see a path to solving global hunger over the next decade, with solutions—such as adopting climate-resilient crops through improving extension services—all culled rapidly via artificial intelligence from more than 500,000 scientific research articles.

The results are synthesized in 10 new research papers—authored by 77 scientists, researchers and librarians in 23 countries—as part of Ceres2030: Sustainable Solutions to End Hunger. The project is headquartered at Cornell University, with partners from the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI) and the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD).

The papers were published concurrently on Oct. 12 in four journals— Nature Plants , Nature Sustainability , Nature Machine Intelligence and Nature Food —and assembled in a comprehensive package online: Sustainable Solutions to End Hunger.

Ceres2030 employed machine learning , librarian savvy and research synthesis methods to quickly scan a trove of thousands of scientific journals for ideas and websites from more than 60 agencies that can help eradicate world hunger .

"We're all bombarded with new research information and the question we must be asking is how do we make decisions from all of that information," said Ceres2030 principal investigator and co-director Jaron Porciello.

The United Nations' Sustainable Development Goal No. 2, known as SDG2, calls for ridding the world of hunger by 2030. Currently, more than 690 million people—about 8.9% of the world's population—are food-insecure, according to the United Nation's Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, that global statistic could easily rise by 10 million people a year from now, and by nearly 60 million people in five years.

"We're trying something new that hasn't been done before," Porciello said. "We know the tools weren't there, the methods weren't there and the teams weren't in place. Now, we've created some staircases to make science and world reality connect a little bit more. This approach could be replicated to build a scientific evidence base for many of the world's most complex policy problems"

Journal information: Nature Plants , Nature Sustainability , Nature Food , Nature Machine Intelligence

Provided by Cornell University

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Hunger and malnutrition in the 21st century

Food for thought, click here to read other articles in this collection.

• Related content
• Peer review
• Patrick Webb , professor 1 ,
• Gunhild Anker Stordalen , policy advocate 2 ,
• Sudhvir Singh , policy researcher 2 ,
• Ramani Wijesinha-Bettoni , United Nations 3 ,
• Prakash Shetty , professor 4 ,
• Anna Lartey , director of nutrition 3
• 1 Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy, Tufts University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
• 2 EAT Forum, Oslo, Norway
• 3 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Ringgold Standard Institution, Rome, Italy
• 4 MS Swaminathan Research Foundation, Ringgold Standard Institution, Chennai, India
• Correspondence to: P Webb patrick.webb{at}tufts.edu

Despite record food output globally, hunger is still with us. Patrick Webb and colleagues argue that key policy actions are urgently needed to tackle this scourge and must focus on improving diet quality for all

Today’s world is characterised by the coexistence of agricultural bounty and widespread hunger and malnutrition. 1 Recent years have seen a reversal of a decades old trend of falling hunger, alongside the re-emergence of famine. 1 National and global evidence shows that ensuring an adequate food supply is still an important contribution to eradicating hunger. However, generating more food in the form of staple grains or tubers is not enough. Good nutrition and an end to hunger both require everyone to have an appropriate diet. How can that be achieved?

Characterising the problem

A recent report for the World Committee on Food Security argued that “malnutrition in all its forms—not only hunger, but also micronutrient deficiencies, as well as overweight and obesity—is … a critical challenge not only in the developing but also in the developed countries. Resolving malnutrition requires a better understanding of the determinants and processes that influence diets.” 1 Malnutrition ranges from extreme hunger and undernutrition to obesity ( box 1 ). 2 3 Furthermore, malnutrition is found in all countries, irrespective of their economic development, where people lack high quality diets. 4 5 6 Thus, solutions to hunger and to all forms of malnutrition need to focus on ensuring an adequate supply of food, but equally, on the quality of diets.

Terms and definitions 1 2 3

Hunger is characterised in many ways. It encompasses individual sensations and household behavioural responses, food scarcity (actual or feared) and national food balance sheets that focus on supply of energy (kilocalories) in any country in relation to a minimum threshold of need. The food balance sheet approach is the only standard of measurement used globally. It is based on data collated by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. This organisation has replaced its previous use of the word “hunger” in describing this metric with the phrase “chronic undernourishment”. This today is defined as “a person’s inability to acquire enough food to meet daily minimum dietary energy requirements during 1 year” 1

Malnutrition— An all inclusive term that represents all manifestations of poor nutrition. It can mean any or all forms of undernutrition, overweight, and obesity

Undernutrition —Refers to any form of nutritional deficiency, particularly those manifest in maternal underweight, child stunting, child wasting, or micronutrient deficiencies. It does not include reference to overweight and obesity

Maternal underweight— A body mass index (BMI) of <18.5 among women of reproductive age. This typically reflects chronic energy deficiency coupled with a lack of other key macronutrients or micronutrients, ill health, or energy expenditure higher than consumption. A prevalence >20% indicates a serious public health problem

Child stunting —Height for age ≤ −2 standard deviations of the median for children aged 6-59 months, according to World Health Organization child growth standards

Child wasting— Weight for height ≤ −2 standard deviations of the median for children aged 6-59 months, according to WHO child growth standards

Micronutrient deficiencies— A lack of various key vitamins and minerals leads to a range of symptoms that are of global concern. These include anaemia due to iron deficiency and risk of child mortality associated with clinical vitamin A deficiency. Such deficiencies are measured in several ways, including biomarkers (assessed using blood, serum, urine, etc), clinical manifestations, or proxy measures of diet quality

Overweight and obesity —For non-pregnant adults, a BMI ≥25 represents being overweight. The threshold for obesity is a BMI ≥30. Child obesity is of increasing concern and was included in the latest global nutrition goals for 2030 (“no increase in childhood obesity”) 4

Today, risk factors for ill health associated with poor quality diets are the main causes of the global burden of disease. 5 6 Low quality diets lack key vitamins, minerals (micronutrients), and fibre or contain too many calories, saturated fats, salt, and sugar. 7 In 2010, dietary risk factors combined with physical inactivity accounted for 10% of the global burden of disease (measured as disability adjusted life years, which reflect the number of years lost due to ill health, disability, or early death). 8 By 2015, six of the top 11 global risk factors were related to diet, including undernutrition, high body mass index (BMI), and high cholesterol. 9 10 Where governments have invested the economic gains derived from rising productivity in safety nets and services accessible to the poor, this has resulted in national growth. 11 12 13 However, where poverty persists, including in rich nations, hunger also persists.

Several faces of hunger

Hunger is a broad unscientific term that relates to nutrition and health outcomes in various ways. The proportion of people defined as hungry over the long term (usually termed “chronically undernourished”) fell from 18.6% globally in 1990-2002 to under 11% in 2014-16 ( table 1 ). That was a decline of 211 million people while the world’s population increased by 2 billion. 2 Big gains were made in large countries like China and in Brazil, Ethiopia, and Bangladesh ( box 2 ). South America was particularly successful, reducing undernourishment by over 50% in 25 years. 1 Such gains were made possible largely by rapid reduction of poverty, rising levels of literacy, and health improvements that reduced preventable child mortality. 17

Numbers (millions) and prevalence (%) of people with chronic undernourishment, stunting, and wasting* by year and geographical region 2 14

• View inline

Successful resolution of undernutrition: Brazil, Ethiopia, and Bangladesh

Hunger (chronic undernourishment) has remained static at around 800 million people for several decades. This is largely because of rising populations in fragile states and the escalation of armed conflict in numerous parts of the world. 1 2 Nevertheless, child undernutrition has been falling. In 2000, roughly 200 million children under 5 years of age were stunted, but this has fallen to less than 151 million today. Rapid improvements in nutrition have been concentrated in several large nations, which have shown the way with policy success stories

• Brazil saw its prevalence of child stunting decline from 37% in 1974–1975 to 7% in 2006-7. 17 It achieved these gains through a sustained commitment to expand access to maternal and child health services (reaching into previously underserved geographical regions). This was coupled with large scale investment in social reform and safety net programmes that supported a narrowing of the income gap (through equitable poverty reduction), rising numbers of girls in school, declining fertility, and greater stability in income flows and food consumption among the poor. Stable food consumption was achieved through food supplementation targeted at mothers and children, and with cash transfers targeted at the poorest groups. All of this was helped by improved stability of governance. Few of these actions focused explicitly on nutrition, but many were driven by a policy agenda called “zero hunger.” Even with recent economic challenges and changes of government, the gains made over past decades persist

• Ethiopia has faced famines many times between the 1980s and the early 2000s. It has also reduced child stunting from 58% in 2000 to <40% by 2014. 18 Although this figure is still unacceptably high, it represents a fall of about 1.2% a year. 19 Ethiopia also increased enrolment and retention of girls in schools during this period, increased agricultural productivity, and implemented a huge employment based safety net (one of the largest social protection programmes in Africa). However, two other important drivers improved nutrition in this period. Firstly, a move by government to treat nutrition as a multisector challenge (met by numerous line ministry responsibilities) and, secondly, improved sanitation, focused on eradicating open defecation, which was a major impediment to health and the retention of nutrients in the diet 18 19

• Bangladesh is a modern nutrition superstar. It emerged from famine in the 1970s. Successive governments have worked alongside an unusually vibrant non-governmental sector to deal with underlying problems and visible symptoms of malnutrition. While service delivery remains generally weak, widespread targeted interventions were combined with a variety of nutritional measures that deal with underlying problems. 20 Such actions included economic growth policies aimed at the poor, girls’ education, improved sanitation, and a significant turnaround in the agricultural sector, which moved Bangladesh from being a net importer of food to a significant exporter. 18 21 As a result, child stunting fell from almost 57% in 1997 to around 36% in 2014 18 19

However, despite such progress the world still has unacceptably high numbers of undernourished people. Of the roughly 800 million undernourished, 780 million are in low income countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. 1 The continents of Africa and Asia have the greatest number of people living in extreme poverty, and it is here that extreme hunger and poverty together present the greatest risk of famine.

Famine is the most acute face of hunger. Over 70 million people died in famines during the 20th century. 22 23 24 Most deaths occurred in human induced crises, in which political mismanagement, armed conflict, and discrimination of marginalised political or ethnic groups compounded the effects of environmental shocks, such as droughts or locust invasions. 25 Deaths from famine fell from the mid-1980s onwards. However, as of 2017 four countries were again struggling to cope: Somalia, Yemen, South Sudan, and Nigeria. 26 In each case, instability induced by conflict, terrorism, drought and decades of failed governance have left over 20 million people facing famine, including 1.4 million children “at imminent risk of death.” 27

A major cause of mortality in famines is children becoming severely wasted. Around 52 million children were wasted in 2016, of whom around 70% (36 million) resided in Asia ( table 1 ). 14 Roughly 12.6% of deaths among children under 5 are attributed to wasting worldwide. 28 Although wasting has declined, progress has been slow and some countries have seen a rise, including Pakistan and India. 29 Many of the drivers of wasting are often the same as for stunting—namely, low birth weight, lack of exclusive breast feeding, poor hygiene and sanitation, and infectious disease. 30 While wasting is one sign of acute hunger, stunting (being too short for one’s age) represents chronic distress. Around 151 million preschool children were stunted in 2017, down from 200 million at the turn of the 20th century. 14 Improvements were made in east Asia, including China (today reporting a prevalence of only 6% compared with the global mean of 23%) and Bangladesh as well as in Latin America ( table 1 ). 31 Nevertheless, South Asia and East and Central Africa all still had rates over 32% in 2017.

Coexisting forms of malnutrition related to diet

The coexistence of multiple forms of malnutrition is a global phenomenon. That is, wasting often coexists with stunting in the same geographical areas, and can be found simultaneously in children. 32 For example, around 9% of children in India exhibit both conditions, while the rate in parts of Ghana is reported to be >3%. 32 33 Many countries with a high prevalence of stunting have made limited progress in achieving annual average rates of reduction required to meet global targets. For example, Timor Leste needs an annual reduction of around 5% to reduce stunting by 40% by 2030, but its current reduction rate is barely above zero. 9 Ethiopia also needs an annual average rate of reduction of 5%, but continues to remain at 3%.

Part of the reason for slow progress lies in overlapping micronutrient deficiencies. Inadequate supply of energy and protein both impair a child’s growth, but micronutrient deficiencies also have a role. It has been estimated that roughly 2 billion people, or about 29% of the world’s population, faced micronutrient deficiencies in 2010. 34 35 36 37 Micronutrient deficiencies are also widely present in high income countries. For example, childhood anaemia in 2010 was 26% in the Russian Federation and in Georgia, and 16%, on average, across the European Union. 38

Obesity is conventionally associated with food excess, but it is also associated with micronutrient deficiencies and even with daily hunger, as shown for Malaysia, 39 Canada, 40 and Iran. 41 Indeed, people with obesity can be prone to deficiencies of micronutrients, such as zinc, iron, and vitamins A, C, D, and E. 42 43 44 45 46 Between 1990 and 2010, the prevalence of adults with a high BMI in sub-Saharan Africa tripled. At the same time, hypertension increased by 60%, and the prevalence of high blood glucose rose nearly 30%. 47 The prevalence of overweight and obesity among South Asian women is almost the same today as the prevalence of underweight. 6 Pacific and Caribbean islands and countries in the Middle East and Central America have reached extremely high rates of adult overweight and obesity. Some have a prevalence as high as 80% (eg, Tonga, 84% for men, 88% for women). 48

Many countries today face the dual burden of rising rates of female obesity with continuing high rates of maternal underweight. The latter matters because of ill effects on the mother and on the unborn child. Roughly 30% of stunting by a child’s 3rd birthday can be attributed to being born small for gestational age, which is linked to nutrition before birth and health problems of the mother. 28 Not only is maternal underweight still more prevalent than overweight in rural parts of South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa but adult female underweight rose recently in Senegal, Madagascar, and Mali, mainly in urban settings. 49

Thus, actions are needed in all countries around the world to deal with undernutrition, micronutrient deficiencies, and overweight and obesity simultaneously. No country is exempt. “Triple duty” investments are needed everywhere because wealth and food sufficiency will not in themselves resolve the problems of low quality of diets.

Effective actions to tackle hunger and malnutrition

In 2016, the world hit a new record by producing over 2.5 billion metric tons of cereal grains—up from 1.8 billion tons 20 years earlier. 50 But hunger persists because an increased supply of food alone is neither the solution to hunger nor an answer to malnutrition. Countries that have made recent progress in reducing hunger and improving nutrition have a core set of common characteristics. Firstly, they tend to be politically stable countries that have pursued relatively equitable growth policies (not only increasing wealth for some but reducing poverty overall). Secondly, they employ targeted safety nets for the poor and invest in accessible services (education, clean water, healthcare). Thirdly, they assume responsibility for responding to shocks (economic, environmental, or due to conflict) in timely ways that mitigate human suffering.

Successful actions typically include a mix of targeted so called nutrition specific programming (aimed at preventing or resolving defined nutrition and health problems in individuals) and nutrition sensitive interventions for the whole population that deal with the underlying causes. 9 32 35 Table 2 provides details of evidence based policies and programmes in a variety of sectors, which are known to reduce hunger and deal with malnutrition. 32 In food and agriculture, these may include national price support interventions that increase the supply and accessibility of nutrient rich foods (often perishables, like dairy, fruits and fresh meats), coupled with technical and financial support for women farmers to produce nutrient rich vegetables in their gardens. In health, national policies to support accessible high quality services are critical to ensuring antenatal and postnatal care, particularly combined with targeted nutrition, exclusive breast feeding, and infant feeding messaging. Measures directed at underweight mothers are important for good birth outcomes, as well as varied forms of micronutrient supplementation. 1 In other words, the quality of services, scale of coverage, and the singling out of nutritionally vulnerable demographic groups are all keys to success. 20 47

Examples of actions to tackle hunger and malnutrition across sectors 3 20 47 51

Good nutrition and eradication of hunger comes at a price, but pays for itself in the longer term. Donor funding for nutrition sensitive programmes rose between 2003 and 2015, from 11.8% to 19.4%, reaching around $19bn (£14bn, €16bn) in 2015. 48 Such assistance is deemed to be effective, in that a 10% increase in overall nutrition sensitive aid delivers an estimated 1.1% “decrease in hunger” (measured as chronic undernourishment). 48 The World Bank has argued that a “priority package” of evidence based nutritional interventions that could be readily scaled up would require roughly $23bn over a decade, or $5 per child. 51 52 The World Bank emphasises that while international donor agencies should increase spending to achieve global nutrition goals, national governments and citizens themselves need to increase spending and act appropriately. The role of individuals and families comes largely in the form of preferences and constraints. 52 People make choices that shape dietary patterns and physical activity but also the uptake of healthcare services, spending on smoking and hygiene, as well as investments in schooling for their children and agricultural productivity (if farmers).

The value of such large investments to future human and economic development has long been understood in high income countries, such as Europe and the United States. European countries deploy a wide range of policies to combat residual hunger. These include promoting more diverse local food production and diversified diets, the latter “encouraged through nutrition education targeting school children and mothers of young children.” 38 The United States also supports large state food provisioning through nutrition programmes aimed at women and children. For example, spending on the federal food stamp programme in 2017 reached $68bn ($126 per person). 53 Similarly, spending on the Women Infants and Children programme, which targets low income families nutritionally at risk with food supplements, nutrition education, and health system referrals, reached $6.5bn in 2017. 54

Conclusions

The sustainable development goals require all countries and their citizens to act together to end hunger and all forms of malnutrition by 2030. 13 Setting targets is a good first step, but actions need to follow quickly. Urgent attention to achieve such goals is seriously overdue. Policy action must be designed to reduce malnutrition in all its forms, and be adequately funded. Measures must be evidence based, implemented at scale, and include both broad based and targeted actions aimed at the most nutritionally vulnerable people. The evidence to support such actions is growing, but it is already plentiful and compelling; there is no need for delay. The rapidly escalating threats posed by malnutrition represent a planetary challenge on a par with poverty and climate change. An appropriate response at the required scale is top priority for decision makers globally. It cannot wait.

Key messages

Despite record levels of food production globally, hunger and many forms of malnutrition still affect billions of people

While traditionally associated with a lack of food, hunger, and malnutrition (which includes overweight and obesity as well as undernutrition) are associated with low quality diets

Poor diet quality is a problem in every country—high and low income alike. A high quality diet meets most key nutrient needs, mainly through nutrient rich foods

Securing high quality diets for all, comprising sufficiency, diversity, balance, and safety, is necessary to resolve hunger and malnutrition in all its forms

Policy makers must urgently implement evidence based, cost effective actions that have a triple purpose: eradicate hunger, resolve all forms of undernutrition, and tackle obesity

Governments must consider how policies across multiple sectors influence the functioning of food systems from farm to fork. They must identify changes that will help all consumers to have healthy diets

The challenge is huge, but the urgency has never been so great

Contributors and sources: The authors have diverse subject expertise and policy experience relating to hunger, food insecurity, diets and nutrition. Some authors have a medical or agriculture background, while others have training and experience in policy analysis, nutrition and humanitarian action. PW and GAS were both members of the Global Futures Council on Food Security and Agriculture of the World Economic Forum. PW and AL advise the Global Panel on Agriculture and Food Systems for Nutrition. SS is a contributing author to the upcoming EAT Lancet Commission on Healthy Diets from Sustainable Food Systems. Data used are all in the public domain, and are derived from nationally representative surveys, United Nations agency analyses, or peer reviewed publications. PW, GAS and AL were involved in manuscript concept and design. All authors were involved in drafting and editing the manuscript; critically revised the manuscript for important intellectual content and approved the final manuscript and the authorship list. PW is the guarantor.

Competing interests: We have read and understood BMJ policy on declaration of interests and have no relevant interests to declare.

Provenance and peer review: Commissioned; externally peer reviewed.

This article is one of a series commissioned by The BMJ . Open access fees for the series were funded by Swiss Re, which had no input into the commissioning or peer review of the articles. The BMJ thanks the series advisers, Nita Forouhi and Dariush Mozaffarian, for valuable advice and guiding selection of topics in the series.

This is an Open Access article distributed in accordance with the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial (CC BY-NC 4.0) license, which permits others to distribute, remix, adapt, build upon this work non-commercially, and license their derivative works on different terms, provided the original work is properly cited and the use is non-commercial. See: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/ .

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• CAREER FEATURE
• 03 May 2024

Hunger on campus: why US PhD students are fighting over food

• Laurie Udesky 0

Laurie Udesky is a freelance journalist in San Francisco, California.

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You have full access to this article via your institution.

An on-campus food pantry at the University of Wisconsin–Madison helps students with insufficient money for food. Credit: M. P. King/Wisconsin State Journal/AP/Alamy

Jen Cruz’s life as a PhD student is a world away from her childhood. Although not a member of the tribe, she grew up on Yakama Indian reservation land in Wapato, Washington.

Cruz, a first-generation university student, remembers how families, including hers, would often work for local farmers or fishers in exchange for food to supplement the food stamps and free school lunches that most people on the reservation relied on to get by.

Collection: Career resources for PhD students

But once at university, Cruz found that the give and take and sense of community that had helped people to survive just didn’t exist on campus. She relied on food stamps issued by the state during her master’s degree in public health at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor. “I also took out loans and worked several jobs,” she says. “When the stamps ran out, I’d go to the food pantry.” These are distribution centres where people facing hunger can receive donated food, akin to food banks in other parts of the world.

Now four years into a PhD in social epidemiology at the Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health in Boston, Massachusetts, Cruz no longer thinks of herself as food insecure — unable to count on having enough food to be active and healthy — but things are still tight in a city where the cost of living requires a single adult to earn US$62,500 annually to support themselves.

In addition to working full time on her dissertation, she does 20 hours a week as a researcher for a faculty-member colleague, and also teaches to supplement her $37,000 stipend (Harvard will be raising PhD student stipends to a minimum of $50,000 in July). She shops at a discount farmers’ market where she can buy a week’s worth of produce for $10, and she shares accommodation with two other people to minimize housing costs.

Hard evidence

A study published in February revealed that food insecurity at Harvard is not just anecdotal ( N. M. Hammad and C. W. Leung JAMA Netw. Open 7 , e2356894; 2024 ). Commissioned by the dean’s office at Harvard’s School of Public Health, the survey found that 17% of the 1,287 graduate students who responded and 13% of the 458 postdoctoral responders had experienced food insecurity — figures that were on a par with or exceeded those for the general US population (13%).

Respondents reported having to skip meals, cut down their portions and fill up on foods with little nutritional value. Some also reported feeling anxious that they wouldn’t have enough to eat. Food insecurity also correlated with respondents feeling that their housing was at risk because of difficulties with rent or mortgage payments

Widespread issue

The struggle to find enough food is a problem not just at Harvard. Food insecurity on campus is widespread in the United States and elsewhere, with one study reporting that 42% of US undergraduate students on average are unable to feed themselves what they need to stay healthy ( B. Ellison et al. Food Policy 102 , 102031; 2021 ). To lessen the struggle faced by hungry students, some 750 campuses across the United States have set up food pantries. Research is lacking on food-access issues affecting UK graduate students and postdocs, but a study of 161 UK universities found that food insecurity was “off the scales”, says developmental psychologist Greta Defeyter, who led the work, which is yet to be published. It affected 57% of first-year undergraduate and foundation-year students.

Postdocs celebrate 24% pay boost in one of the world’s most expensive cities

Food insecurity affected 20% of PhD students, “which is much higher than the UK average” of 6–10% of the general population, says Defeyter, who directs the Healthy Living Lab, a food-poverty research group based at Northumbria University in Newcastle.

A 2016 report about food insecurity at the ten campuses of the University of California (UC) system found that 25% of graduate students and 48% of undergraduates didn’t have enough to eat (see go.nature.com/49dedjx ).

“We started producing the data to go to the state and say, we have a problem and we need to do something about it,” said Suzanna Martinez, a health-behaviour epidemiologist at UC San Francisco. Martinez led the research in her previous role at the university’s Nutrition Policy Institute in Oakland, California. “Since 2016, the UC system has published updates on food insecurity and actions to address it on its campuses,” she adds. These reports can be accessed online through the university’s Basic Needs Initiative (see go.nature.com/4begaus ).

Social stigma

As well as lowering academic performance and increasing the risk of depression, food insecurity is associated with social stigma.

Gwen Chodur, now a postdoc in nutritional biology at UC Santa Cruz, was a key player in the fight for food security while a graduate student in nutrition at the UC Davis. Chodur’s monthly pay in 2016, her first year as a graduate student, was just under $1,700. A first-generation university student who hailed from ‘coal country’ in Pennsylvania, she often skipped lunch as an undergraduate at Pennsylvania State University in University Park. Despite taking on a couple of jobs while there, she says, “I was always one unanticipated expense away from not being able to finish my degree.”

When she started at UC Davis in September 2016, she explains, she didn’t get her first cheque until November, which forced her to get creative with dried beans and rice, or stock up on cans of spaghetti hoops for dinner. “It was very clear to me that higher education wasn’t designed for students like me, and that was very obvious from the first day that I set foot on campus,” she says of the deep-seated sense of impostor syndrome she felt.

PhD students face cash crisis with wages that don’t cover living costs

Chodur soon learnt that many other graduate students had similar struggles. Bolstered by this knowledge, she joined others to launch a separate food pantry, located in the Graduate Student Association office, for colleagues who felt uncomfortable going to the one on campus. “They were saying things like, ‘If I see my students there, that could undermine my authority in the classroom and it would be embarrassing,’” says Chodur.

Safyer McKenzie-Sampson spoke out about the location of the weekly free food market at UC San Francisco. McKenzie-Sampson, who was then a PhD student researching racism and adverse maternal health outcomes in Black communities, says having access to the market was helpful after spending half of her pay on rent. But a return trip to the food market took one hour from the Mission Bay campus, where she lived and worked. “There’d be a group of us with our big green bags collectively doing the walk of shame to the shuttle bus,” she says. Raising the issue repeatedly with her mentor resulted in a second food market opening at the Mission Bay Campus. “She was able to have the right conversations with the right people,” McKenzie-Sampson says.

Even so, McKenzie-Sampson still did not have enough to eat, and often had to track down free food provided at campus meetings. “I don’t know if you have heard of the example of ‘having sleep for dinner’. Well, there definitely were many nights when I had sleep for dinner,” says McKenzie-Sampson, who is now based at Stanford University in California, where she researches racism and ethnicity. She hails from Canada and, like other international students, would at that time have been ineligible for food stamps provided through the state version of the federal Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program.

Legislation introduced in California in 2021 broadened eligibility for food stamps in the state’s undergraduates. But food insecurity in graduate students rose by 14 percentage points between 2021 and 2023, after a fall of 5 percentage points between 2016 and 2021.

“At the end of the day, it’s still the dollar amount that impacts graduate students,” says Martinez, noting that their stipends are too high for them to be eligible for food stamps.

Martinez, who advises on basic necessities operations on UC campuses, also attributes the jump to cost of attendance and increases in the cost of living. She says that the 2023 Basic Needs Initiative survey on food insecurity might have been done before pay hikes for graduate students, which took effect after a long-standing and ultimately successful strike over pay and conditions ended in December 2022. According to the university’s latest report on basic necessities, between 2020 and 2023, the US consumer price index rose by 19% and food prices ratcheted up by 24%.

Meanwhile, researchers at Harvard are in the next phase of investigating food insecurity on campus, taking a deeper dive into the details of how graduate students and postdocs are weathering it and what they need. Nour Hammad, a PhD student who researches public-health nutrition and is lead author of the study, says a food pantry is planned. The research continues, she adds, “to see how food insecurity impacts academic performance, their physical and mental health, their relationships — just their whole experience”.

Until recently, Cruz was part of those efforts as leader of the Harvard Chan Alliance for Low Income and First Generation Students Organization, an advocacy group that campaigns for better food access for students in need and serves more broadly as a support system. Group chats announce where on campus students can find free food — usually leftover pizza, sandwiches and fruit from meetings.

“I would say all of us PhD students have Tupperware containers at our desks, so if there is food, we can take extra home,” says Cruz. On the day she spoke to Nature , she had scored some cooked chicken breasts: “I was like, that’s going to be my protein for the week.”

Nature 629 , 489-490 (2024)

doi: https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-024-01279-y

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High Hunger Rates in Undocumented Communities 

By Florencia Makk

Chronic hunger continues to affect hundreds of millions of people worldwide, but even within one country, hunger and food insecurity are more common and more severe in some communities than others. 

Bread for the World has long emphasized what, in the words of the United Nations, is the “central, transformative promise” of the U.N. Sustainable Development Goals: “Leave no one behind.” Ending hunger means ending hunger for everyone. Achieving this goal requires centering the needs of people who are at higher risk of hunger.  

Hunger and related problems do not respect borders. There are people facing hunger in every country, including wealthy countries like the United States. Every year more than 40 million people in the United States are food insecure , meaning that they don’t have regular, reliable access to nutritious food in quantities necessary for a healthy, active life. It is not surprising that people who live in communities with high poverty rates are more likely to be food insecure. 

One such community is made up of people who live in the U.S. without documentation. From 2007 to 2021, the size of this group was largely stable at about 11 million people . There has likely been an increase since 2021, but researchers reported in March 2024 that more recent data was not available. 

One major barrier to food security for undocumented people is that they are generally excluded from federally-funded nutrition programs. In times of need, people born in the U.S. and naturalized citizens are usually able to access federal nutrition programs such as the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP) to help put food on the table. But undocumented individuals generally do not qualify for these programs. 

It is difficult to obtain national-level statistics on the level of food insecurity among undocumented people compared with U.S. citizens and permanent residents, since data on whether people are undocumented is not routinely collected by the federal agency that measures food security. However, some information is available from community and state-level efforts to determine the severity of the problem and seek effective solutions.

A study of food security among immigrants was conducted in Massachusetts in July 2020, with interviews available in 16 languages. Families who were immigrants but not undocumented were less likely to report running out of food or grocery money than families with at least one undocumented member – 59 percent among documented immigrants, compared with 78 percent among undocumented immigrants. It goes without saying that both of these rates are far too high. Clearly, other factors continue to put immigrants at much greater risk of hunger, regardless of their immigration status.

Thankfully, a variety of organizations are working to prevent or reduce hunger among undocumented people. They are located in areas with large immigrant populations – mainly metropolitan areas and along the U.S. border with Mexico. 

For example, 10 years ago in San Diego, the International Rescue Committee established its “New Roots” food security and agriculture program network with the goal of supporting immigrants in accessing land and agribusiness opportunities. It has since grown to 10 locations and offers a variety of programs that support immigrants, particularly refugees, in food access, nutrition, and agriculture. It now reaches about 13,000 people annually . 

California has a program that provides benefits similar to SNAP for some people who would otherwise qualify for SNAP but are not eligible because they are undocumented. The California Food Assistance Program (CFAP) keeps almost 700,000 Californians, including more than 300,000 children, above the poverty line each year. 

Nonetheless, much more needs to be done, even in states that have taken steps to help. A recent report based on data from UCLA found that  45 percent of California’s undocumented immigrants are food insecure and that 64 percent of children 17 and younger live in food-insecure households.

A related issue concerns immigrants who are in fact eligible for some safety-net programs. The Urban Institute conducted a study that found that one in seven eligible immigrant families did not enroll in programs like SNAP or Medicaid. One group of people with decisions to make about applying for benefits are parents in so-called “mixed status” families, where some members of the family are U.S. citizens or legal residents and others are undocumented. Most often, they themselves are undocumented, but one or more of their children are U.S. citizens by birth and qualify for SNAP benefits.

Why do people decide not to apply for government nutrition or healthcare programs?  Researchers in one study summed up many of the reasons as lack of access to resources, social vulnerability, and/or economic uncertainty . 

The “public charge” rule is used to exclude immigrants who are considered likely to become unable to support themselves in years to come – public charge is a synonym for “welfare recipient.” People who are considered likely to be “public charges” may be denied legal permanent resident status or U.S. citizenship. The Biden administration has reversed the changes to the rule made by the Trump administration. Social service agencies try to provide reassuring facts—for example, receiving SNAP benefits does not affect one’s immigration status —but not everyone has heard about these changes from sources they trust. As a result, many potential applicants for safety-net programs worry that receiving benefits could jeopardize their immigration cases. 

There is also still a significant amount of shame or stigma attached to the idea of asking for or receiving assistance. Another factor is that, over the last decade, there have been several changes in the laws that determine who is eligible for SNAP and who is not. People who are uncertain about their eligibility may decide not to take that chance. Finally, many undocumented people work in the “gig” economy. This type of work very often means inconsistent and unreliable pay, which in turn creates much more difficulty filling out federal government applications proving that one is low-income or otherwise eligible. 

Bread’s advocacy to end hunger in the U.S. looks closely at the details of how hunger affects different communities so that we can help identify policy improvements that work for everyone.

Florencia Makk is a policy intern in development finance, Policy and Research Institute, with Bread for the World.

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80 World Hunger Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best world hunger topic ideas & essay examples, 🎓 simple & easy world hunger essay titles, 🔎 good research topics about world hunger, ❓ questions about world hunger.

• World Hunger Essay: Causes of World Hunger & How to Solve It It is important to note that though the problem of hunger is virtually everywhere in the world, most of the hunger stricken people are found in the developing countries.
• Effects of World Hunger Activities of the United States indicate a tendency to increase world hunger; it seems to give the perception that it is fond to bask in the glory of the world’s dependency on foreign aid, so […]
• World Hunger: Causes and Solutions For example, Peter Singer and Garrett Hardin depict the importance of famine and suggest diverse solutions for the cease of the problem in their publications and scientific research.
• What Causes World Hunger? It is, therefore, true enough to state that corrupt and oppressive political systems around the world have contributed a great deal towards the escalation of world hunger.
• Population Growth and World Hunger Links I recommends teachers who teach mathematics to liberal arts to try these teaching strategies and test how the performances of their students will greatly improve.
• Genetically Engineered Food Against World Hunger I support the production of GMFs in large quality; I hold the opinion that they can offer a lasting solution to food problems facing the world.
• Peter Singer in the Solution to World Hunger This paper analyses the topic on world hunger, why the topic is important in the study of ethics, and Peter Singer’s position on what we ought to do to alleviate world hunger.
• World Hunger and Millennium Development Goals The chart below shows the statistics of hunger in the world: The majority of poverty stricken people who happens to be suffering from hunger live in Africa, the Pacific, Caribbean, and Asia.
• Is Genetically Engineered Food the Solution to the World’s Hunger Problems? However, the acceptance of GMO’s as the solution to the world’s food problem is not unanimously and there is still a multitude of opposition and suspicion of their use.
• Genetically Modified Food as a Solution to Ending World Hunger
• World Hunger and Environment: Pressures on Land, Water, and Energy Resources
• Poverty Is the Principal Cause of Global Hunger
• Focus On 24 Vulnerable Countries to Help End World Hunger
• World Hunger Problem: Biological Stress Factors
• Utilitarianism Theory: The Moral Obligation to Help End World Hunger
• The Connection Between Overpopulation and World Hunger: Factors Which Contribute to Hunger
• The focus of the 2021 Ghi: World Hunger and Food Systems in Conflict Settings
• World Hunger and Global Environment in Haiti
• World Hunger’s Problem Needs Resilience to Build Food and Nutrition Security
• Role of Company Zambrero and Mexican Cuisine in Fighting Against World Hunger
• Australian Foreign Aid Projects to Reduce World Hunger and Poverty
• The Clean Meat Movement as the Solution to World Hunger
• Global and Regional Trends in World Hunger
• Development and Strategies for Reducing World Hunger
• The Impact of Animal Agriculture on World Hunger
• World Hunger’s Solutions: Reduced Usage of Land And Teaching Farmers About Effective Land Use
• Myths About World Hunger: Just a Problem of Not Having Enough Food
• World Hunger Effects on Developing Countries: Underweight, Growth Stunted, and Micronutrient Deficiencies
• World Hunger in Africa: Facts, FAQs, and How to Help
• The Challenge of World Hunger and Climate Change
• Forced Migration and World Hunger: Two Closely Intertwined Problems
• Why Rising and Volatile Food Prices Bring World Hunger
• World Hunger: Measures of Child Undernutrition
• World Hunger and the UK Example: Food Prices Being High
• How Politics Subsidize World Hunger
• Can Biotech Food Cure World Hunger
• Freerice by WFP: Free Trivia Game That Helps End World Hunger
• Linking Health and Sustainable Food Systems With World Hunger
• The World Hunger and Food Shortages: Conflicts, Wars, Environmental Shocks Such as Flooding or Drought
• World Hunger: Discussion of Cannibalism as a Possible Solution
• The Inequalities of World Hunger: The UN And Their Aim “Leaving No One Behind”
• World Hunger Relief Organizations
• A Decrease in World Hunger With an Increase in Food Production
• Ending World Hunger in Our Time by Food Sovereignty
• No Food, No Morals: The Effects of World Hunger
• Peter Singer in the Solution to World Hunger
• How the Creation of Leaders Brings Inequalities in Rank, Power, Wealth, and Eventually the Creation of World Hunger
• Why the War in Ukraine Has Exacerbated Global Food Insecurity
• Solving World Hunger Through Microenterprises, Policy, and Community Health Workers
• How Does Poverty Cause World Hunger?
• What Are the Main Consequences of World Hunger?
• How Can Micro-Enterprises, Politics and Community Health Workers Solve the Problem of World Hunger?
• What Is the Biggest Problem in the Fight Against Hunger in the World?
• Is World Hunger Caused by Food Waste?
• What Are the Causes and Effects of Hunger in the World?
• How Does Animal Agriculture Contribute to World Hunger?
• What Is the Social Problem of World Hunger?
• How Can the Government Overcome World Hunger?
• Why Is World Hunger a Political Issue?
• Is Hunger Caused by Food Shortages Around the World?
• How Is World Hunger Affecting Haiti?
• What Are the Things That Can Help End World Hunger?
• How Can Genetic Engineering Help Fight World Hunger?
• Is World Hunger a Human Rights Issue?
• What Is the Biggest Contributor to World Hunger?
• How Does Political Instability Cause World Hunger?
• Is World Hunger a Problem of Distribution?
• What Measures Must Be Taken Today to Prevent Future World Hunger?
• Is There a Connection Between Diabetes and World Hunger?
• How Can Gmos End World Hunger?
• Are Overpopulation and World Hunger Related?
• How Is World Hunger Related to Human Rights?
• Does Utilitarianism Theory Claim That It Is Our Moral Duty to Help End World Hunger?
• What Is the Most Effective Way to End World Hunger?
• How Are World Hunger and Poverty in Developing Countries Related?
• Could Food Sovereignty Put an End to World Hunger in Our Time?
• Is Genetically Modified Food the Answer to World Hunger?
• How Does World Hunger Affect the Economy?
• Does the Meat Industry Contribute to World Hunger?
• Chicago (A-D)
• Chicago (N-B)

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IvyPanda . "80 World Hunger Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." March 22, 2023. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/world-hunger-essay-topics/.

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