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Research Questions – Types, Examples and Writing Guide

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Research Questions

Definition:

Research questions are the specific questions that guide a research study or inquiry. These questions help to define the scope of the research and provide a clear focus for the study. Research questions are usually developed at the beginning of a research project and are designed to address a particular research problem or objective.

Types of Research Questions

Types of Research Questions are as follows:

Descriptive Research Questions

These aim to describe a particular phenomenon, group, or situation. For example:

• What are the characteristics of the target population?
• What is the prevalence of a particular disease in a specific region?

Exploratory Research Questions

These aim to explore a new area of research or generate new ideas or hypotheses. For example:

• What are the potential causes of a particular phenomenon?
• What are the possible outcomes of a specific intervention?

Explanatory Research Questions

These aim to understand the relationship between two or more variables or to explain why a particular phenomenon occurs. For example:

• What is the effect of a specific drug on the symptoms of a particular disease?
• What are the factors that contribute to employee turnover in a particular industry?

Predictive Research Questions

These aim to predict a future outcome or trend based on existing data or trends. For example :

• What will be the future demand for a particular product or service?
• What will be the future prevalence of a particular disease?

Evaluative Research Questions

These aim to evaluate the effectiveness of a particular intervention or program. For example:

• What is the impact of a specific educational program on student learning outcomes?
• What is the effectiveness of a particular policy or program in achieving its intended goals?

How to Choose Research Questions

Choosing research questions is an essential part of the research process and involves careful consideration of the research problem, objectives, and design. Here are some steps to consider when choosing research questions:

• Identify the research problem: Start by identifying the problem or issue that you want to study. This could be a gap in the literature, a social or economic issue, or a practical problem that needs to be addressed.
• Conduct a literature review: Conducting a literature review can help you identify existing research in your area of interest and can help you formulate research questions that address gaps or limitations in the existing literature.
• Define the research objectives : Clearly define the objectives of your research. What do you want to achieve with your study? What specific questions do you want to answer?
• Consider the research design : Consider the research design that you plan to use. This will help you determine the appropriate types of research questions to ask. For example, if you plan to use a qualitative approach, you may want to focus on exploratory or descriptive research questions.
• Ensure that the research questions are clear and answerable: Your research questions should be clear and specific, and should be answerable with the data that you plan to collect. Avoid asking questions that are too broad or vague.
• Get feedback : Get feedback from your supervisor, colleagues, or peers to ensure that your research questions are relevant, feasible, and meaningful.

How to Write Research Questions

Guide for Writing Research Questions:

• Start with a clear statement of the research problem: Begin by stating the problem or issue that your research aims to address. This will help you to formulate focused research questions.
• Use clear language : Write your research questions in clear and concise language that is easy to understand. Avoid using jargon or technical terms that may be unfamiliar to your readers.
• Be specific: Your research questions should be specific and focused. Avoid broad questions that are difficult to answer. For example, instead of asking “What is the impact of climate change on the environment?” ask “What are the effects of rising sea levels on coastal ecosystems?”
• Use appropriate question types: Choose the appropriate question types based on the research design and objectives. For example, if you are conducting a qualitative study, you may want to use open-ended questions that allow participants to provide detailed responses.
• Consider the feasibility of your questions : Ensure that your research questions are feasible and can be answered with the resources available. Consider the data sources and methods of data collection when writing your questions.
• Seek feedback: Get feedback from your supervisor, colleagues, or peers to ensure that your research questions are relevant, appropriate, and meaningful.

Examples of Research Questions

Some Examples of Research Questions with Research Titles:

Research Title: The Impact of Social Media on Mental Health

• Research Question : What is the relationship between social media use and mental health, and how does this impact individuals’ well-being?

Research Title: Factors Influencing Academic Success in High School

• Research Question: What are the primary factors that influence academic success in high school, and how do they contribute to student achievement?

Research Title: The Effects of Exercise on Physical and Mental Health

• Research Question: What is the relationship between exercise and physical and mental health, and how can exercise be used as a tool to improve overall well-being?

Research Title: Understanding the Factors that Influence Consumer Purchasing Decisions

• Research Question : What are the key factors that influence consumer purchasing decisions, and how do these factors vary across different demographics and products?

Research Title: The Impact of Technology on Communication

• Research Question : How has technology impacted communication patterns, and what are the effects of these changes on interpersonal relationships and society as a whole?

Research Title: Investigating the Relationship between Parenting Styles and Child Development

• Research Question: What is the relationship between different parenting styles and child development outcomes, and how do these outcomes vary across different ages and developmental stages?

Research Title: The Effectiveness of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy in Treating Anxiety Disorders

• Research Question: How effective is cognitive-behavioral therapy in treating anxiety disorders, and what factors contribute to its success or failure in different patients?

Research Title: The Impact of Climate Change on Biodiversity

• Research Question : How is climate change affecting global biodiversity, and what can be done to mitigate the negative effects on natural ecosystems?

Research Title: Exploring the Relationship between Cultural Diversity and Workplace Productivity

• Research Question : How does cultural diversity impact workplace productivity, and what strategies can be employed to maximize the benefits of a diverse workforce?

Research Title: The Role of Artificial Intelligence in Healthcare

• Research Question: How can artificial intelligence be leveraged to improve healthcare outcomes, and what are the potential risks and ethical concerns associated with its use?

Applications of Research Questions

Here are some of the key applications of research questions:

• Defining the scope of the study : Research questions help researchers to narrow down the scope of their study and identify the specific issues they want to investigate.
• Developing hypotheses: Research questions often lead to the development of hypotheses, which are testable predictions about the relationship between variables. Hypotheses provide a clear and focused direction for the study.
• Designing the study : Research questions guide the design of the study, including the selection of participants, the collection of data, and the analysis of results.
• Collecting data : Research questions inform the selection of appropriate methods for collecting data, such as surveys, interviews, or experiments.
• Analyzing data : Research questions guide the analysis of data, including the selection of appropriate statistical tests and the interpretation of results.
• Communicating results : Research questions help researchers to communicate the results of their study in a clear and concise manner. The research questions provide a framework for discussing the findings and drawing conclusions.

Characteristics of Research Questions

Characteristics of Research Questions are as follows:

• Clear and Specific : A good research question should be clear and specific. It should clearly state what the research is trying to investigate and what kind of data is required.
• Relevant : The research question should be relevant to the study and should address a current issue or problem in the field of research.
• Testable : The research question should be testable through empirical evidence. It should be possible to collect data to answer the research question.
• Concise : The research question should be concise and focused. It should not be too broad or too narrow.
• Feasible : The research question should be feasible to answer within the constraints of the research design, time frame, and available resources.
• Original : The research question should be original and should contribute to the existing knowledge in the field of research.
• Significant : The research question should have significance and importance to the field of research. It should have the potential to provide new insights and knowledge to the field.
• Ethical : The research question should be ethical and should not cause harm to any individuals or groups involved in the study.

Purpose of Research Questions

Research questions are the foundation of any research study as they guide the research process and provide a clear direction to the researcher. The purpose of research questions is to identify the scope and boundaries of the study, and to establish the goals and objectives of the research.

The main purpose of research questions is to help the researcher to focus on the specific area or problem that needs to be investigated. They enable the researcher to develop a research design, select the appropriate methods and tools for data collection and analysis, and to organize the results in a meaningful way.

Research questions also help to establish the relevance and significance of the study. They define the research problem, and determine the research methodology that will be used to address the problem. Research questions also help to determine the type of data that will be collected, and how it will be analyzed and interpreted.

Finally, research questions provide a framework for evaluating the results of the research. They help to establish the validity and reliability of the data, and provide a basis for drawing conclusions and making recommendations based on the findings of the study.

Advantages of Research Questions

There are several advantages of research questions in the research process, including:

• Focus : Research questions help to focus the research by providing a clear direction for the study. They define the specific area of investigation and provide a framework for the research design.
• Clarity : Research questions help to clarify the purpose and objectives of the study, which can make it easier for the researcher to communicate the research aims to others.
• Relevance : Research questions help to ensure that the study is relevant and meaningful. By asking relevant and important questions, the researcher can ensure that the study will contribute to the existing body of knowledge and address important issues.
• Consistency : Research questions help to ensure consistency in the research process by providing a framework for the development of the research design, data collection, and analysis.
• Measurability : Research questions help to ensure that the study is measurable by defining the specific variables and outcomes that will be measured.
• Replication : Research questions help to ensure that the study can be replicated by providing a clear and detailed description of the research aims, methods, and outcomes. This makes it easier for other researchers to replicate the study and verify the results.

Limitations of Research Questions

Limitations of Research Questions are as follows:

• Subjectivity : Research questions are often subjective and can be influenced by personal biases and perspectives of the researcher. This can lead to a limited understanding of the research problem and may affect the validity and reliability of the study.
• Inadequate scope : Research questions that are too narrow in scope may limit the breadth of the study, while questions that are too broad may make it difficult to focus on specific research objectives.
• Unanswerable questions : Some research questions may not be answerable due to the lack of available data or limitations in research methods. In such cases, the research question may need to be rephrased or modified to make it more answerable.
• Lack of clarity : Research questions that are poorly worded or ambiguous can lead to confusion and misinterpretation. This can result in incomplete or inaccurate data, which may compromise the validity of the study.
• Difficulty in measuring variables : Some research questions may involve variables that are difficult to measure or quantify, making it challenging to draw meaningful conclusions from the data.
• Lack of generalizability: Research questions that are too specific or limited in scope may not be generalizable to other contexts or populations. This can limit the applicability of the study’s findings and restrict its broader implications.

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Muhammad Hassan

Researcher, Academic Writer, Web developer

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How to Write a Research Question: Types and Examples 

The first step in any research project is framing the research question. It can be considered the core of any systematic investigation as the research outcomes are tied to asking the right questions. Thus, this primary interrogation point sets the pace for your research as it helps collect relevant and insightful information that ultimately influences your work.   

Typically, the research question guides the stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting. Depending on the use of quantifiable or quantitative data, research questions are broadly categorized into quantitative or qualitative research questions. Both types of research questions can be used independently or together, considering the overall focus and objectives of your research.  

What is a research question?

A research question is a clear, focused, concise, and arguable question on which your research and writing are centered. 1 It states various aspects of the study, including the population and variables to be studied and the problem the study addresses. These questions also set the boundaries of the study, ensuring cohesion. 

Designing the research question is a dynamic process where the researcher can change or refine the research question as they review related literature and develop a framework for the study. Depending on the scale of your research, the study can include single or multiple research questions. 

A good research question has the following features: 

• It is relevant to the chosen field of study. 
• The question posed is arguable and open for debate, requiring synthesizing and analysis of ideas. 
• It is focused and concisely framed. 
• A feasible solution is possible within the given practical constraint and timeframe. 

A poorly formulated research question poses several risks. 1   

• Researchers can adopt an erroneous design. 
• It can create confusion and hinder the thought process, including developing a clear protocol.  
• It can jeopardize publication efforts.  
• It causes difficulty in determining the relevance of the study findings.  
• It causes difficulty in whether the study fulfils the inclusion criteria for systematic review and meta-analysis. This creates challenges in determining whether additional studies or data collection is needed to answer the question.  
• Readers may fail to understand the objective of the study. This reduces the likelihood of the study being cited by others. 

Now that you know “What is a research question?”, let’s look at the different types of research questions. 

Types of research questions

Depending on the type of research to be done, research questions can be classified broadly into quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-methods studies. Knowing the type of research helps determine the best type of research question that reflects the direction and epistemological underpinnings of your research. 

The structure and wording of quantitative 2 and qualitative research 3 questions differ significantly. The quantitative study looks at causal relationships, whereas the qualitative study aims at exploring a phenomenon. 

• Quantitative research questions:  
• Seeks to investigate social, familial, or educational experiences or processes in a particular context and/or location.  
• Answers ‘how,’ ‘what,’ or ‘why’ questions. 
• Investigates connections, relations, or comparisons between independent and dependent variables. 

Quantitative research questions can be further categorized into descriptive, comparative, and relationship, as explained in the Table below. 

• Qualitative research questions  

Qualitative research questions are adaptable, non-directional, and more flexible. It concerns broad areas of research or more specific areas of study to discover, explain, or explore a phenomenon. These are further classified as follows: 

• Mixed-methods studies  

Mixed-methods studies use both quantitative and qualitative research questions to answer your research question. Mixed methods provide a complete picture than standalone quantitative or qualitative research, as it integrates the benefits of both methods. Mixed methods research is often used in multidisciplinary settings and complex situational or societal research, especially in the behavioral, health, and social science fields. 

What makes a good research question

A good research question should be clear and focused to guide your research. It should synthesize multiple sources to present your unique argument, and should ideally be something that you are interested in. But avoid questions that can be answered in a few factual statements. The following are the main attributes of a good research question. 

• Specific: The research question should not be a fishing expedition performed in the hopes that some new information will be found that will benefit the researcher. The central research question should work with your research problem to keep your work focused. If using multiple questions, they should all tie back to the central aim. 
• Measurable: The research question must be answerable using quantitative and/or qualitative data or from scholarly sources to develop your research question. If such data is impossible to access, it is better to rethink your question. 
• Attainable: Ensure you have enough time and resources to do all research required to answer your question. If it seems you will not be able to gain access to the data you need, consider narrowing down your question to be more specific. 
• You have the expertise 
• You have the equipment and resources 
• Realistic: Developing your research question should be based on initial reading about your topic. It should focus on addressing a problem or gap in the existing knowledge in your field or discipline. 
• Based on some sort of rational physics 
• Can be done in a reasonable time frame 
• Timely: The research question should contribute to an existing and current debate in your field or in society at large. It should produce knowledge that future researchers or practitioners can later build on. 
• Novel 
• Based on current technologies. 
• Important to answer current problems or concerns. 
• Lead to new directions. 
• Important: Your question should have some aspect of originality. Incremental research is as important as exploring disruptive technologies. For example, you can focus on a specific location or explore a new angle. 
• Meaningful whether the answer is “Yes” or “No.” Closed-ended, yes/no questions are too simple to work as good research questions. Such questions do not provide enough scope for robust investigation and discussion. A good research question requires original data, synthesis of multiple sources, and original interpretation and argumentation before providing an answer. 

Steps for developing a good research question

The importance of research questions cannot be understated. When drafting a research question, use the following frameworks to guide the components of your question to ease the process. 4  

• Determine the requirements: Before constructing a good research question, set your research requirements. What is the purpose? Is it descriptive, comparative, or explorative research? Determining the research aim will help you choose the most appropriate topic and word your question appropriately. 
• Select a broad research topic: Identify a broader subject area of interest that requires investigation. Techniques such as brainstorming or concept mapping can help identify relevant connections and themes within a broad research topic. For example, how to learn and help students learn. 
• Perform preliminary investigation: Preliminary research is needed to obtain up-to-date and relevant knowledge on your topic. It also helps identify issues currently being discussed from which information gaps can be identified. 
• Narrow your focus: Narrow the scope and focus of your research to a specific niche. This involves focusing on gaps in existing knowledge or recent literature or extending or complementing the findings of existing literature. Another approach involves constructing strong research questions that challenge your views or knowledge of the area of study (Example: Is learning consistent with the existing learning theory and research). 
• Identify the research problem: Once the research question has been framed, one should evaluate it. This is to realize the importance of the research questions and if there is a need for more revising (Example: How do your beliefs on learning theory and research impact your instructional practices). 

How to write a research question

Those struggling to understand how to write a research question, these simple steps can help you simplify the process of writing a research question. 

Sample Research Questions

The following are some bad and good research question examples 

• Example 1 
• Example 2 

References:  

• Thabane, L., Thomas, T., Ye, C., & Paul, J. (2009). Posing the research question: not so simple.  Canadian Journal of Anesthesia/Journal canadien d’anesthésie ,  56 (1), 71-79. 
• Rutberg, S., & Bouikidis, C. D. (2018). Focusing on the fundamentals: A simplistic differentiation between qualitative and quantitative research.  Nephrology Nursing Journal ,  45 (2), 209-213. 
• Kyngäs, H. (2020). Qualitative research and content analysis.  The application of content analysis in nursing science research , 3-11. 
• Mattick, K., Johnston, J., & de la Croix, A. (2018). How to… write a good research question.  The clinical teacher ,  15 (2), 104-108. 
• Fandino, W. (2019). Formulating a good research question: Pearls and pitfalls.  Indian Journal of Anaesthesia ,  63 (8), 611. 
• Richardson, W. S., Wilson, M. C., Nishikawa, J., & Hayward, R. S. (1995). The well-built clinical question: a key to evidence-based decisions.  ACP journal club ,  123 (3), A12-A13 

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Literature Searching

Types of Research Questions

Research questions can be categorized into different types, depending on the type of research to be undertaken.

Qualitative questions concern broad areas or more specific areas of research and focus on discovering, explaining and exploring.  Types of qualitative questions include:

• Exploratory Questions, which seeks to understand without influencing the results.  The objective is to learn more about a topic without bias or preconceived notions.
• Predictive Questions, which seek to understand the intent or future outcome around a topic.
• Interpretive Questions, which tries to understand people’s behavior in a natural setting.  The objective is to understand how a group makes sense of shared experiences with regards to various phenomena.

Quantitative questions prove or disprove a  researcher’s hypothesis and are constructed to express the relationship between variables  and whether this relationship is significant.  Types of quantitative questions include:

• Descriptive questions , which are the most basic type of quantitative research question and seeks to explain the when, where, why or how something occurred. 
• Comparative questions are helpful when studying groups with dependent variables where one variable is compared with another.
• Relationship-based questions try to answer whether or not one variable has an influence on another.  These types of question are generally used in experimental research questions.

References/Additional Resources

Lipowski, E. E. (2008). Developing great research questions . American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy, 65(17), 1667–1670.

Ratan, S. K., Anand, T., & Ratan, J. (2019). Formulation of Research Question - Stepwise Approach .  Journal of Indian Association of Pediatric Surgeons ,  24 (1), 15–20.

Fandino W.(2019). Formulating a good research question: Pearls and pitfalls . I ndian J Anaesth. 63(8) :611-616. 

Beck, L. L. (2023). The question: types of research questions and how to develop them . In Translational Surgery: Handbook for Designing and Conducting Clinical and Translational Research (pp. 111-120). Academic Press. 

Doody, O., & Bailey, M. E. (2016). Setting a research question, aim and objective. Nurse Researcher, 23(4), 19–23.

Plano Clark, V., & Badiee, M. (2010). Research questions in mixed methods research . In: SAGE Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social & Behavioral Research .  SAGE Publications, Inc.,

Agee, J. (2009). Developing qualitative research questions: A reflective process .  International journal of qualitative studies in education ,  22 (4), 431-447. 

Flemming, K., & Noyes, J. (2021). Qualitative Evidence Synthesis: Where Are We at? I nternational Journal of Qualitative Methods, 20.  

Research Question Frameworks

Research question frameworks have been designed to help structure research questions and clarify the main concepts. Not every question can fit perfectly into a framework, but using even just parts of a framework can help develop a well-defined research question. The framework to use depends on the type of question to be researched.   There are over 25 research question frameworks available.  The University of Maryland has a nice table listing out several of these research question frameworks, along with what the acronyms mean and what types of questions/disciplines that may be used for.

The process of developing a good research question involves taking your topic and breaking each aspect of it down into its component parts.

Booth, A., Noyes, J., Flemming, K., Moore, G., Tunçalp, Ö., & Shakibazadeh, E. (2019). Formulating questions to explore complex interventions within qualitative evidence synthesis.   BMJ global health ,  4 (Suppl 1), e001107. (See supplementary data#1)

The "Well-Built Clinical Question“: PICO(T)

One well-established framework that can be used both for refining questions and developing strategies is known as PICO(T). The PICO framework was designed primarily for questions that include interventions and comparisons, however other types of questions may also be able to follow its principles.  If the PICO(T) framework does not precisely fit your question, using its principles (see alternative component suggestions) can help you to think about what you want to explore even if you do not end up with a true PICO question.

A PICO(T) question has the following components:

• P : The patient’s disorder or disease or problem of interest / research object
• I: The intervention, exposure or finding under review / Application of a theory or method
• C: A comparison intervention or control (if applicable- not always present)/ Alternative theories or methods (or, in their absence, the null hypothesis)
• O : The outcome(s) (desired or of interest) / Knowledge generation
• T : (The time factor or period)

Keep in mind that solely using a tool will not enable you to design a good question. What is required is for you to think, carefully, about exactly what you want to study and precisely what you mean by each of the things that you think you want to study.

Rzany, & Bigby, M. (n.d.). Formulating Well-Built Clinical Questions. In Evidence-based dermatology / (pp. 27–30). Blackwell Pub/BMJ Books.  

Nishikawa-Pacher, A. (2022). Research questions with PICO: a universal mnemonic.   Publications ,  10 (3), 21.

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How to Develop a Good Research Question? — Types & Examples

Cecilia is living through a tough situation in her research life. Figuring out where to begin, how to start her research study, and how to pose the right question for her research quest, is driving her insane. Well, questions, if not asked correctly, have a tendency to spiral us!

Image Source: https://phdcomics.com/

Questions lead everyone to answers. Research is a quest to find answers. Not the vague questions that Cecilia means to answer, but definitely more focused questions that define your research. Therefore, asking appropriate question becomes an important matter of discussion.

A well begun research process requires a strong research question. It directs the research investigation and provides a clear goal to focus on. Understanding the characteristics of comprising a good research question will generate new ideas and help you discover new methods in research.

In this article, we are aiming to help researchers understand what is a research question and how to write one with examples.

Table of Contents

What Is a Research Question?

A good research question defines your study and helps you seek an answer to your research. Moreover, a clear research question guides the research paper or thesis to define exactly what you want to find out, giving your work its objective. Learning to write a research question is the beginning to any thesis, dissertation , or research paper. Furthermore, the question addresses issues or problems which is answered through analysis and interpretation of data.

Why Is a Research Question Important?

A strong research question guides the design of a study. Moreover, it helps determine the type of research and identify specific objectives. Research questions state the specific issue you are addressing and focus on outcomes of the research for individuals to learn. Therefore, it helps break up the study into easy steps to complete the objectives and answer the initial question.

Types of Research Questions

Research questions can be categorized into different types, depending on the type of research you want to undergo. Furthermore, knowing the type of research will help a researcher determine the best type of research question to use.

1. Qualitative Research Question

Qualitative questions concern broad areas or more specific areas of research. However, unlike quantitative questions, qualitative research questions are adaptable, non-directional and more flexible. Qualitative research question focus on discovering, explaining, elucidating, and exploring.

i. Exploratory Questions

This form of question looks to understand something without influencing the results. The objective of exploratory questions is to learn more about a topic without attributing bias or preconceived notions to it.

Research Question Example: Asking how a chemical is used or perceptions around a certain topic.

ii. Predictive Questions

Predictive research questions are defined as survey questions that automatically predict the best possible response options based on text of the question. Moreover, these questions seek to understand the intent or future outcome surrounding a topic.

Research Question Example: Asking why a consumer behaves in a certain way or chooses a certain option over other.

iii. Interpretive Questions

This type of research question allows the study of people in the natural setting. The questions help understand how a group makes sense of shared experiences with regards to various phenomena. These studies gather feedback on a group’s behavior without affecting the outcome.

Research Question Example: How do you feel about AI assisting publishing process in your research?

2. Quantitative Research Question

Quantitative questions prove or disprove a researcher’s hypothesis through descriptions, comparisons, and relationships. These questions are beneficial when choosing a research topic or when posing follow-up questions that garner more information.

i. Descriptive Questions

It is the most basic type of quantitative research question and it seeks to explain when, where, why, or how something occurred. Moreover, they use data and statistics to describe an event or phenomenon.

Research Question Example: How many generations of genes influence a future generation?

ii. Comparative Questions

Sometimes it’s beneficial to compare one occurrence with another. Therefore, comparative questions are helpful when studying groups with dependent variables.

Example: Do men and women have comparable metabolisms?

iii. Relationship-Based Questions

This type of research question answers influence of one variable on another. Therefore, experimental studies use this type of research questions are majorly.

Example: How is drought condition affect a region’s probability for wildfires.  

How to Write a Good Research Question?

1. Select a Topic

The first step towards writing a good research question is to choose a broad topic of research. You could choose a research topic that interests you, because the complete research will progress further from the research question. Therefore, make sure to choose a topic that you are passionate about, to make your research study more enjoyable.

2. Conduct Preliminary Research

After finalizing the topic, read and know about what research studies are conducted in the field so far. Furthermore, this will help you find articles that talk about the topics that are yet to be explored. You could explore the topics that the earlier research has not studied.

3. Consider Your Audience

The most important aspect of writing a good research question is to find out if there is audience interested to know the answer to the question you are proposing. Moreover, determining your audience will assist you in refining your research question, and focus on aspects that relate to defined groups.

4. Generate Potential Questions

The best way to generate potential questions is to ask open ended questions. Questioning broader topics will allow you to narrow down to specific questions. Identifying the gaps in literature could also give you topics to write the research question. Moreover, you could also challenge the existing assumptions or use personal experiences to redefine issues in research.

5. Review Your Questions

Once you have listed few of your questions, evaluate them to find out if they are effective research questions. Moreover while reviewing, go through the finer details of the question and its probable outcome, and find out if the question meets the research question criteria.

6. Construct Your Research Question

There are two frameworks to construct your research question. The first one being PICOT framework , which stands for:

• Population or problem
• Intervention or indicator being studied
• Comparison group
• Outcome of interest
• Time frame of the study.

The second framework is PEO , which stands for:

• Population being studied
• Exposure to preexisting conditions
• Outcome of interest.

Research Question Examples

• How might the discovery of a genetic basis for alcoholism impact triage processes in medical facilities?
• How do ecological systems respond to chronic anthropological disturbance?
• What are demographic consequences of ecological interactions?
• What roles do fungi play in wildfire recovery?
• How do feedbacks reinforce patterns of genetic divergence on the landscape?
• What educational strategies help encourage safe driving in young adults?
• What makes a grocery store easy for shoppers to navigate?
• What genetic factors predict if someone will develop hypothyroidism?
• Does contemporary evolution along the gradients of global change alter ecosystems function?

How did you write your first research question ? What were the steps you followed to create a strong research question? Do write to us or comment below.

Frequently Asked Questions

Research questions guide the focus and direction of a research study. Here are common types of research questions: 1. Qualitative research question: Qualitative questions concern broad areas or more specific areas of research. However, unlike quantitative questions, qualitative research questions are adaptable, non-directional and more flexible. Different types of qualitative research questions are: i. Exploratory questions ii. Predictive questions iii. Interpretive questions 2. Quantitative Research Question: Quantitative questions prove or disprove a researcher’s hypothesis through descriptions, comparisons, and relationships. These questions are beneficial when choosing a research topic or when posing follow-up questions that garner more information. Different types of quantitative research questions are: i. Descriptive questions ii. Comparative questions iii. Relationship-based questions

Qualitative research questions aim to explore the richness and depth of participants' experiences and perspectives. They should guide your research and allow for in-depth exploration of the phenomenon under investigation. After identifying the research topic and the purpose of your research: • Begin with Broad Inquiry: Start with a general research question that captures the main focus of your study. This question should be open-ended and allow for exploration. • Break Down the Main Question: Identify specific aspects or dimensions related to the main research question that you want to investigate. • Formulate Sub-questions: Create sub-questions that delve deeper into each specific aspect or dimension identified in the previous step. • Ensure Open-endedness: Make sure your research questions are open-ended and allow for varied responses and perspectives. Avoid questions that can be answered with a simple "yes" or "no." Encourage participants to share their experiences, opinions, and perceptions in their own words. • Refine and Review: Review your research questions to ensure they align with your research purpose, topic, and objectives. Seek feedback from your research advisor or peers to refine and improve your research questions.

Developing research questions requires careful consideration of the research topic, objectives, and the type of study you intend to conduct. Here are the steps to help you develop effective research questions: 1. Select a Topic 2. Conduct Preliminary Research 3. Consider Your Audience 4. Generate Potential Questions 5. Review Your Questions 6. Construct Your Research Question Based on PICOT or PEO Framework

There are two frameworks to construct your research question. The first one being PICOT framework, which stands for: • Population or problem • Intervention or indicator being studied • Comparison group • Outcome of interest • Time frame of the study The second framework is PEO, which stands for: • Population being studied • Exposure to preexisting conditions • Outcome of interest

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• Research Questions: Definitions, Types + [Examples]

Research questions lie at the core of systematic investigation and this is because recording accurate research outcomes is tied to asking the right questions. Asking the right questions when conducting research can help you collect relevant and insightful information that ultimately influences your work, positively. 

The right research questions are typically easy to understand, straight to the point, and engaging. In this article, we will share tips on how to create the right research questions and also show you how to create and administer an online questionnaire with Formplus . 

What is a Research Question? 

A research question is a specific inquiry which the research seeks to provide a response to. It resides at the core of systematic investigation and it helps you to clearly define a path for the research process. 

A research question is usually the first step in any research project. Basically, it is the primary interrogation point of your research and it sets the pace for your work.  

Typically, a research question focuses on the research, determines the methodology and hypothesis, and guides all stages of inquiry, analysis, and reporting. With the right research questions, you will be able to gather useful information for your investigation. 

Types of Research Questions 

Research questions are broadly categorized into 2; that is, qualitative research questions and quantitative research questions. Qualitative and quantitative research questions can be used independently and co-dependently in line with the overall focus and objectives of your research. 

If your research aims at collecting quantifiable data , you will need to make use of quantitative research questions. On the other hand, qualitative questions help you to gather qualitative data bothering on the perceptions and observations of your research subjects. 

Qualitative Research Questions  

A qualitative research question is a type of systematic inquiry that aims at collecting qualitative data from research subjects. The aim of qualitative research questions is to gather non-statistical information pertaining to the experiences, observations, and perceptions of the research subjects in line with the objectives of the investigation. 

Types of Qualitative Research Questions  

• Ethnographic Research Questions

As the name clearly suggests, ethnographic research questions are inquiries presented in ethnographic research. Ethnographic research is a qualitative research approach that involves observing variables in their natural environments or habitats in order to arrive at objective research outcomes. 

These research questions help the researcher to gather insights into the habits, dispositions, perceptions, and behaviors of research subjects as they interact in specific environments. 

Ethnographic research questions can be used in education, business, medicine, and other fields of study, and they are very useful in contexts aimed at collecting in-depth and specific information that are peculiar to research variables. For instance, asking educational ethnographic research questions can help you understand how pedagogy affects classroom relations and behaviors. 

This type of research question can be administered physically through one-on-one interviews, naturalism (live and work), and participant observation methods. Alternatively, the researcher can ask ethnographic research questions via online surveys and questionnaires created with Formplus.  

Examples of Ethnographic Research Questions

• Why do you use this product?
• Have you noticed any side effects since you started using this drug?
• Does this product meet your needs?

• Case Studies

A case study is a qualitative research approach that involves carrying out a detailed investigation into a research subject(s) or variable(s). In the course of a case study, the researcher gathers a range of data from multiple sources of information via different data collection methods, and over a period of time. 

The aim of a case study is to analyze specific issues within definite contexts and arrive at detailed research subject analyses by asking the right questions. This research method can be explanatory, descriptive , or exploratory depending on the focus of your systematic investigation or research. 

An explanatory case study is one that seeks to gather information on the causes of real-life occurrences. This type of case study uses “how” and “why” questions in order to gather valid information about the causative factors of an event. 

Descriptive case studies are typically used in business researches, and they aim at analyzing the impact of changing market dynamics on businesses. On the other hand, exploratory case studies aim at providing answers to “who” and “what” questions using data collection tools like interviews and questionnaires. 

Some questions you can include in your case studies are: 

• Why did you choose our services?
• How has this policy affected your business output?
• What benefits have you recorded since you started using our product?

An interview is a qualitative research method that involves asking respondents a series of questions in order to gather information about a research subject. Interview questions can be close-ended or open-ended , and they prompt participants to provide valid information that is useful to the research. 

An interview may also be structured, semi-structured , or unstructured , and this further influences the types of questions they include. Structured interviews are made up of more close-ended questions because they aim at gathering quantitative data while unstructured interviews consist, primarily, of open-ended questions that allow the researcher to collect qualitative information from respondents. 

You can conduct interview research by scheduling a physical meeting with respondents, through a telephone conversation, and via digital media and video conferencing platforms like Skype and Zoom. Alternatively, you can use Formplus surveys and questionnaires for your interview. 

Examples of interview questions include: 

• What challenges did you face while using our product?
• What specific needs did our product meet?
• What would you like us to improve our service delivery?

Quantitative Research Questions

Quantitative research questions are questions that are used to gather quantifiable data from research subjects. These types of research questions are usually more specific and direct because they aim at collecting information that can be measured; that is, statistical information. 

Types of Quantitative Research Questions

• Descriptive Research Questions

Descriptive research questions are inquiries that researchers use to gather quantifiable data about the attributes and characteristics of research subjects. These types of questions primarily seek responses that reveal existing patterns in the nature of the research subjects. 

It is important to note that descriptive research questions are not concerned with the causative factors of the discovered attributes and characteristics. Rather, they focus on the “what”; that is, describing the subject of the research without paying attention to the reasons for its occurrence. 

Descriptive research questions are typically closed-ended because they aim at gathering definite and specific responses from research participants. Also, they can be used in customer experience surveys and market research to collect information about target markets and consumer behaviors. 

Descriptive Research Question Examples

• How often do you make use of our fitness application?
• How much would you be willing to pay for this product?

• Comparative Research Questions

A comparative research question is a type of quantitative research question that is used to gather information about the differences between two or more research subjects across different variables. These types of questions help the researcher to identify distinct features that mark one research subject from the other while highlighting existing similarities. 

Asking comparative research questions in market research surveys can provide insights on how your product or service matches its competitors. In addition, it can help you to identify the strengths and weaknesses of your product for a better competitive advantage.  

The 5 steps involved in the framing of comparative research questions are: 

• Choose your starting phrase
• Identify and name the dependent variable
• Identify the groups you are interested in
• Identify the appropriate adjoining text
• Write out the comparative research question

Comparative Research Question Samples 

• What are the differences between a landline telephone and a smartphone?
• What are the differences between work-from-home and on-site operations?

• Relationship-based Research Questions  

Just like the name suggests, a relationship-based research question is one that inquires into the nature of the association between two research subjects within the same demographic. These types of research questions help you to gather information pertaining to the nature of the association between two research variables. 

Relationship-based research questions are also known as correlational research questions because they seek to clearly identify the link between 2 variables. 

Read: Correlational Research Designs: Types, Examples & Methods

Examples of relationship-based research questions include: 

• What is the relationship between purchasing power and the business site?
• What is the relationship between the work environment and workforce turnover?

Examples of a Good Research Question

Since research questions lie at the core of any systematic investigations, it is important to know how to frame a good research question. The right research questions will help you to gather the most objective responses that are useful to your systematic investigation. 

A good research question is one that requires impartial responses and can be answered via existing sources of information. Also, a good research question seeks answers that actively contribute to a body of knowledge; hence, it is a question that is yet to be answered in your specific research context.

• Open-Ended Questions

 An open-ended question is a type of research question that does not restrict respondents to a set of premeditated answer options. In other words, it is a question that allows the respondent to freely express his or her perceptions and feelings towards the research subject. 

Examples of Open-ended Questions

• How do you deal with stress in the workplace?
• What is a typical day at work like for you?
• Close-ended Questions

A close-ended question is a type of survey question that restricts respondents to a set of predetermined answers such as multiple-choice questions . Close-ended questions typically require yes or no answers and are commonly used in quantitative research to gather numerical data from research participants. 

Examples of Close-ended Questions

• Did you enjoy this event?
• How likely are you to recommend our services?
• Very Likely
• Somewhat Likely
• Likert Scale Questions

A Likert scale question is a type of close-ended question that is structured as a 3-point, 5-point, or 7-point psychometric scale . This type of question is used to measure the survey respondent’s disposition towards multiple variables and it can be unipolar or bipolar in nature. 

Example of Likert Scale Questions

• How satisfied are you with our service delivery?
• Very dissatisfied
• Not satisfied
• Very satisfied
• Rating Scale Questions

A rating scale question is a type of close-ended question that seeks to associate a specific qualitative measure (rating) with the different variables in research. It is commonly used in customer experience surveys, market research surveys, employee reviews, and product evaluations. 

Example of Rating Questions

• How would you rate our service delivery?

  Examples of a Bad Research Question

Knowing what bad research questions are would help you avoid them in the course of your systematic investigation. These types of questions are usually unfocused and often result in research biases that can negatively impact the outcomes of your systematic investigation. 

• Loaded Questions

A loaded question is a question that subtly presupposes one or more unverified assumptions about the research subject or participant. This type of question typically boxes the respondent in a corner because it suggests implicit and explicit biases that prevent objective responses. 

Example of Loaded Questions

• Have you stopped smoking?
• Where did you hide the money?
• Negative Questions

A negative question is a type of question that is structured with an implicit or explicit negator. Negative questions can be misleading because they upturn the typical yes/no response order by requiring a negative answer for affirmation and an affirmative answer for negation. 

Examples of Negative Questions

• Would you mind dropping by my office later today?
• Didn’t you visit last week?
• Leading Questions  

A l eading question is a type of survey question that nudges the respondent towards an already-determined answer. It is highly suggestive in nature and typically consists of biases and unverified assumptions that point toward its premeditated responses. 

Examples of Leading Questions

• If you enjoyed this service, would you be willing to try out our other packages?
• Our product met your needs, didn’t it?

Read More: Leading Questions: Definition, Types, and Examples

How to Use Formplus as Online Research Questionnaire Tool  

With Formplus, you can create and administer your online research questionnaire easily. In the form builder, you can add different form fields to your questionnaire and edit these fields to reflect specific research questions for your systematic investigation. 

Here is a step-by-step guide on how to create an online research questionnaire with Formplus: 

• Sign in to your Formplus accoun t, then click on the “create new form” button in your dashboard to access the Form builder.

• In the form builder, add preferred form fields to your online research questionnaire by dragging and dropping them into the form. Add a title to your form in the title block. You can edit form fields by clicking on the “pencil” icon on the right corner of each form field.

• Save the form to access the customization section of the builder. Here, you can tweak the appearance of your online research questionnaire by adding background images, changing the form font, and adding your organization’s logo.

• Finally, copy your form link and share it with respondents. You can also use any of the multiple sharing options available.

Conclusion  

The success of your research starts with framing the right questions to help you collect the most valid and objective responses. Be sure to avoid bad research questions like loaded and negative questions that can be misleading and adversely affect your research data and outcomes. 

Your research questions should clearly reflect the aims and objectives of your systematic investigation while laying emphasis on specific contexts. To help you seamlessly gather responses for your research questions, you can create an online research questionnaire on Formplus.  

Connect to Formplus, Get Started Now - It's Free!

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Research Aims, Objectives & Questions

The “Golden Thread” Explained Simply (+ Examples)

By: David Phair (PhD) and Alexandra Shaeffer (PhD) | June 2022

The research aims , objectives and research questions (collectively called the “golden thread”) are arguably the most important thing you need to get right when you’re crafting a research proposal , dissertation or thesis . We receive questions almost every day about this “holy trinity” of research and there’s certainly a lot of confusion out there, so we’ve crafted this post to help you navigate your way through the fog.

Overview: The Golden Thread

• What is the golden thread
• What are research aims ( examples )
• What are research objectives ( examples )
• What are research questions ( examples )
• The importance of alignment in the golden thread

What is the “golden thread”?  

The golden thread simply refers to the collective research aims , research objectives , and research questions for any given project (i.e., a dissertation, thesis, or research paper ). These three elements are bundled together because it’s extremely important that they align with each other, and that the entire research project aligns with them.

Importantly, the golden thread needs to weave its way through the entirety of any research project , from start to end. In other words, it needs to be very clearly defined right at the beginning of the project (the topic ideation and proposal stage) and it needs to inform almost every decision throughout the rest of the project. For example, your research design and methodology will be heavily influenced by the golden thread (we’ll explain this in more detail later), as well as your literature review.

The research aims, objectives and research questions (the golden thread) define the focus and scope ( the delimitations ) of your research project. In other words, they help ringfence your dissertation or thesis to a relatively narrow domain, so that you can “go deep” and really dig into a specific problem or opportunity. They also help keep you on track , as they act as a litmus test for relevance. In other words, if you’re ever unsure whether to include something in your document, simply ask yourself the question, “does this contribute toward my research aims, objectives or questions?”. If it doesn’t, chances are you can drop it.

Alright, enough of the fluffy, conceptual stuff. Let’s get down to business and look at what exactly the research aims, objectives and questions are and outline a few examples to bring these concepts to life.

Research Aims: What are they?

Simply put, the research aim(s) is a statement that reflects the broad overarching goal (s) of the research project. Research aims are fairly high-level (low resolution) as they outline the general direction of the research and what it’s trying to achieve .

Research Aims: Examples  

True to the name, research aims usually start with the wording “this research aims to…”, “this research seeks to…”, and so on. For example:

“This research aims to explore employee experiences of digital transformation in retail HR.”   “This study sets out to assess the interaction between student support and self-care on well-being in engineering graduate students”  

As you can see, these research aims provide a high-level description of what the study is about and what it seeks to achieve. They’re not hyper-specific or action-oriented, but they’re clear about what the study’s focus is and what is being investigated.

Need a helping hand?

Research Objectives: What are they?

The research objectives take the research aims and make them more practical and actionable . In other words, the research objectives showcase the steps that the researcher will take to achieve the research aims.

The research objectives need to be far more specific (higher resolution) and actionable than the research aims. In fact, it’s always a good idea to craft your research objectives using the “SMART” criteria. In other words, they should be specific, measurable, achievable, relevant and time-bound”.

Research Objectives: Examples  

Let’s look at two examples of research objectives. We’ll stick with the topic and research aims we mentioned previously.  

For the digital transformation topic:

To observe the retail HR employees throughout the digital transformation. To assess employee perceptions of digital transformation in retail HR. To identify the barriers and facilitators of digital transformation in retail HR.

And for the student wellness topic:

To determine whether student self-care predicts the well-being score of engineering graduate students. To determine whether student support predicts the well-being score of engineering students. To assess the interaction between student self-care and student support when predicting well-being in engineering graduate students.

  As you can see, these research objectives clearly align with the previously mentioned research aims and effectively translate the low-resolution aims into (comparatively) higher-resolution objectives and action points . They give the research project a clear focus and present something that resembles a research-based “to-do” list.

Research Questions: What are they?

Finally, we arrive at the all-important research questions. The research questions are, as the name suggests, the key questions that your study will seek to answer . Simply put, they are the core purpose of your dissertation, thesis, or research project. You’ll present them at the beginning of your document (either in the introduction chapter or literature review chapter) and you’ll answer them at the end of your document (typically in the discussion and conclusion chapters).  

The research questions will be the driving force throughout the research process. For example, in the literature review chapter, you’ll assess the relevance of any given resource based on whether it helps you move towards answering your research questions. Similarly, your methodology and research design will be heavily influenced by the nature of your research questions. For instance, research questions that are exploratory in nature will usually make use of a qualitative approach, whereas questions that relate to measurement or relationship testing will make use of a quantitative approach.  

Let’s look at some examples of research questions to make this more tangible.

Research Questions: Examples  

Again, we’ll stick with the research aims and research objectives we mentioned previously.  

For the digital transformation topic (which would be qualitative in nature):

How do employees perceive digital transformation in retail HR? What are the barriers and facilitators of digital transformation in retail HR?  

And for the student wellness topic (which would be quantitative in nature):

Does student self-care predict the well-being scores of engineering graduate students? Does student support predict the well-being scores of engineering students? Do student self-care and student support interact when predicting well-being in engineering graduate students?  

You’ll probably notice that there’s quite a formulaic approach to this. In other words, the research questions are basically the research objectives “converted” into question format. While that is true most of the time, it’s not always the case. For example, the first research objective for the digital transformation topic was more or less a step on the path toward the other objectives, and as such, it didn’t warrant its own research question.  

So, don’t rush your research questions and sloppily reword your objectives as questions. Carefully think about what exactly you’re trying to achieve (i.e. your research aim) and the objectives you’ve set out, then craft a set of well-aligned research questions . Also, keep in mind that this can be a somewhat iterative process , where you go back and tweak research objectives and aims to ensure tight alignment throughout the golden thread.

The importance of strong alignment 

Alignment is the keyword here and we have to stress its importance . Simply put, you need to make sure that there is a very tight alignment between all three pieces of the golden thread. If your research aims and research questions don’t align, for example, your project will be pulling in different directions and will lack focus . This is a common problem students face and can cause many headaches (and tears), so be warned.

Take the time to carefully craft your research aims, objectives and research questions before you run off down the research path. Ideally, get your research supervisor/advisor to review and comment on your golden thread before you invest significant time into your project, and certainly before you start collecting data .  

Recap: The golden thread

In this post, we unpacked the golden thread of research, consisting of the research aims , research objectives and research questions . You can jump back to any section using the links below.

As always, feel free to leave a comment below – we always love to hear from you. Also, if you’re interested in 1-on-1 support, take a look at our private coaching service here.

Psst... there’s more!

This post was based on one of our popular Research Bootcamps . If you're working on a research project, you'll definitely want to check this out ...

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39 Comments

Thank you very much for your great effort put. As an Undergraduate taking Demographic Research & Methodology, I’ve been trying so hard to understand clearly what is a Research Question, Research Aim and the Objectives in a research and the relationship between them etc. But as for now I’m thankful that you’ve solved my problem.

Well appreciated. This has helped me greatly in doing my dissertation.

An so delighted with this wonderful information thank you a lot.

so impressive i have benefited a lot looking forward to learn more on research.

I am very happy to have carefully gone through this well researched article.

Infact,I used to be phobia about anything research, because of my poor understanding of the concepts.

Now,I get to know that my research question is the same as my research objective(s) rephrased in question format.

I please I would need a follow up on the subject,as I intends to join the team of researchers. Thanks once again.

Thanks so much. This was really helpful.

I know you pepole have tried to break things into more understandable and easy format. And God bless you. Keep it up

i found this document so useful towards my study in research methods. thanks so much.

This is my 2nd read topic in your course and I should commend the simplified explanations of each part. I’m beginning to understand and absorb the use of each part of a dissertation/thesis. I’ll keep on reading your free course and might be able to avail the training course! Kudos!

Thank you! Better put that my lecture and helped to easily understand the basics which I feel often get brushed over when beginning dissertation work.

This is quite helpful. I like how the Golden thread has been explained and the needed alignment.

This is quite helpful. I really appreciate!

The article made it simple for researcher students to differentiate between three concepts.

Very innovative and educational in approach to conducting research.

I am very impressed with all these terminology, as I am a fresh student for post graduate, I am highly guided and I promised to continue making consultation when the need arise. Thanks a lot.

A very helpful piece. thanks, I really appreciate it .

Very well explained, and it might be helpful to many people like me.

Wish i had found this (and other) resource(s) at the beginning of my PhD journey… not in my writing up year… 😩 Anyways… just a quick question as i’m having some issues ordering my “golden thread”…. does it matter in what order you mention them? i.e., is it always first aims, then objectives, and finally the questions? or can you first mention the research questions and then the aims and objectives?

Thank you for a very simple explanation that builds upon the concepts in a very logical manner. Just prior to this, I read the research hypothesis article, which was equally very good. This met my primary objective.

My secondary objective was to understand the difference between research questions and research hypothesis, and in which context to use which one. However, I am still not clear on this. Can you kindly please guide?

In research, a research question is a clear and specific inquiry that the researcher wants to answer, while a research hypothesis is a tentative statement or prediction about the relationship between variables or the expected outcome of the study. Research questions are broader and guide the overall study, while hypotheses are specific and testable statements used in quantitative research. Research questions identify the problem, while hypotheses provide a focus for testing in the study.

Exactly what I need in this research journey, I look forward to more of your coaching videos.

This helped a lot. Thanks so much for the effort put into explaining it.

What data source in writing dissertation/Thesis requires?

What is data source covers when writing dessertation/thesis

This is quite useful thanks

I’m excited and thankful. I got so much value which will help me progress in my thesis.

where are the locations of the reserch statement, research objective and research question in a reserach paper? Can you write an ouline that defines their places in the researh paper?

Very helpful and important tips on Aims, Objectives and Questions.

Thank you so much for making research aim, research objectives and research question so clear. This will be helpful to me as i continue with my thesis.

Thanks much for this content. I learned a lot. And I am inspired to learn more. I am still struggling with my preparation for dissertation outline/proposal. But I consistently follow contents and tutorials and the new FB of GRAD Coach. Hope to really become confident in writing my dissertation and successfully defend it.

As a researcher and lecturer, I find splitting research goals into research aims, objectives, and questions is unnecessarily bureaucratic and confusing for students. For most biomedical research projects, including ‘real research’, 1-3 research questions will suffice (numbers may differ by discipline).

Awesome! Very important resources and presented in an informative way to easily understand the golden thread. Indeed, thank you so much.

Well explained

The blog article on research aims, objectives, and questions by Grad Coach is a clear and insightful guide that aligns with my experiences in academic research. The article effectively breaks down the often complex concepts of research aims and objectives, providing a straightforward and accessible explanation. Drawing from my own research endeavors, I appreciate the practical tips offered, such as the need for specificity and clarity when formulating research questions. The article serves as a valuable resource for students and researchers, offering a concise roadmap for crafting well-defined research goals and objectives. Whether you’re a novice or an experienced researcher, this article provides practical insights that contribute to the foundational aspects of a successful research endeavor.

A great thanks for you. it is really amazing explanation. I grasp a lot and one step up to research knowledge.

I really found these tips helpful. Thank you very much Grad Coach.

I found this article helpful. Thanks for sharing this.

thank you so much, the explanation and examples are really helpful

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There are three basic types of questions that research projects can address:

• Descriptive. When a study is designed primarily to describe what is going on or what exists. Public opinion polls that seek only to describe the proportion of people who hold various opinions are primarily descriptive in nature. For instance, if we want to know what percent of the population would vote for a Democratic or a Republican in the next presidential election, we are simply interested in describing something.
• Relational. When a study is designed to look at the relationships between two or more variables. A public opinion poll that compares what proportion of males and females say they would vote for a Democratic or a Republican candidate in the next presidential election is essentially studying the relationship between gender and voting preference.
• Causal. When a study is designed to determine whether one or more variables (e.g. a program or treatment variable) causes or affects one or more outcome variables. If we did a public opinion poll to try to determine whether a recent political advertising campaign changed voter preferences, we would essentially be studying whether the campaign (cause) changed the proportion of voters who would vote Democratic or Republican (effect).

The three question types can be viewed as cumulative. That is, a relational study assumes that you can first describe (by measuring or observing) each of the variables you are trying to relate. And, a causal study assumes that you can describe both the cause and effect variables and that you can show that they are related to each other. Causal studies are probably the most demanding of the three.

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Types of questions: Survey question types, examples, and tips

Learn about different types of questions to improve your survey completion. Get started today and craft better survey questions designed to keep people engaged.

Latest posts on Tips

Typeform    |    05.2024

Typeform    |    04.2024

Need some help writing survey questions ? We've got you. Dive into our types of question examples and write kick-ass survey questions.

Types of survey questions

This is what you came for—the good stuff.

Here are the types of survey questions you should be using to get more survey responses:

Open-ended questions

Closed-ended questions, rating questions, likert scale questions, multiple-choice questions, picture choice questions, demographic questions.

Open up a conversation with this question type. These are good types of questions to get more meaningful answers from, as people have the opportunity to give you more feedback through a text box. If you’re looking for a yes/no answer—you’ll need to use a closed-end question.

Open-ended question examples:

What are you wearing today?

How did you meet your best friend?

What is it like to live in Barcelona?

Some questions just need a one-word answer. Like yes. Or no. You can use them to get some quick ‌bits of information, then go on to segment your survey accordingly.

Closed-ended questions examples:

Did you order the chicken?

Do you like learning German?

Are you living in Australia?

Reach for the stars. Or the hearts. Or smiles. Send a rating question and find out how your survey-takers would rate something. It’s a super useful question to ask, as you can gauge peoples’ opinions across the board.

Rating questions examples:

How would you rate our service out of 5?

How many stars would you give our film?

Please rate how valuable our training was today.

Likert scale questions are good survey questions for finding out what people think about certain things. Generally, they come in 5-, 7-, or 9-point scales, and you’ve probably filled one out before.

Likert scale questions examples:

Do you agree that Channel 5 offers more comedy than Channel 6?

How satisfied are you today with our customer service?

Do you feel affected by the recent changes in the office?

Sending out a test or quiz ? Multiple-choice questions are your friend. You can give a few answers and hide the real answer. Also, if you want to find out time periods or dates for an event, multiple-choice questions are the one. Plus, you can bundle them up nicely and neatly in a dropdown menu.

Multiple choice questions examples:

Facebook was launched in… 2003 | 2004 | 2005 | 2006

How many of our restaurants have you visited? 1 | 2 | 3 | 4+

What is the capital of Scotland? Perth | Glasgow | Aberdeen | Edinburgh

A picture paints a thousand words. But in a survey? It does so much more. Ask a picture choice question and make your survey even more interactive. Tell a story, and show rather than tell.

Picture choice questions example:

Demographic survey questions are a mix of different forms of questions. It’s up to you whether you want to use a dropdown here or an open-ended question with them.

Demographic question examples:

How old are you?

What’s your gender?

Which industry do you work in?

Ask the right survey questions to get better results

We live in the information age, a time when data is a source of capital. Surveys have become one of the time-tested ways of gathering data. But even with 200+ years of published research and experience, people still fail to obtain helpful information from their surveys. Lucky for you, it doesn’t take much time to learn how to carry out a successful survey.

If you're still stuck wondering what type of data you should be looking to collect, take a look at our guide to qualitative vs. quantitative research methods.

Best practices for different question types

Your objective is to get as many responses as you can so you can make the best decisions. But to do this, you need to follow a few basic “rules.” 

Here’s an overview of the best practices for writing survey questions:

Keep your language simple and specific: Unless you’re asking Ph.D. students about their opinions on string theory, there’s no need to include scientific or confusing language. Type like you’d talk.

Avoid leading questions: “How was our amazing customer service team today?” Emm, not actually that great… Don’t plant opinions in peoples’ heads before they answer.

Ask one question at a time: Avoid putting two questions into one—“How was the food and ambiance?” Separate questions to get better answers.

Don’t make the survey excessively long: If your survey is over 20 questions long, pause to think. Some surveys are just, well, long. But if you can condense it, your audience will thank you.

Show how much longer there is: That said, if it’s long, let people know how long. Tell people when they’re halfway through your survey.

Make your surveys mobile-friendly: We’re always on the move. So make sure your survey can be completed from the subway as well as from the office.

For big ideas, split them into multiple questions: If you’re asking for lots of opinions on one subject, try to split a huge question into several different questions, each covering a different angle. And consider using rating scale questions to see how people feel about different ideas.

Use open-ended questions sparingly: An open-ended survey question is a brilliant response option for getting honest and actionable feedback. But people get bored of typing in long answers, so vary your answer options and don’t stuff in too many open-ended questions.

How to write great survey questions

Regardless of whether you’re creating a survey or a questionnaire , there is an art to designing effective types of questions. There are also several principles of survey design that'll help you get the information you need from your customers.

Define the objective

Remember that the aim of conducting a survey isn’t just to get answers. We're interested in what the answers will tell us about something else, which is why it’s crucial to define a clear purpose for every question you ask in a survey.

Before you start writing survey questions, create a list of objectives that outline the kind of information you’re trying to glean with each question. A plan for how you'll use the data gathered from each response will help you ensure that the questions are targeted, relevant, and purposeful.

Example objective: Assess employee attitudes toward standing desks

Possible questions:

In the past 12 months, have you used a standing desk?

 If yes: The standing desk improved my overall productivity (Agree—Neutral—Disagree) 

If no: I like the idea of testing a standing desk at work (Agree—Neutral—Disagree) 

Research has shown that standing desks result in fewer sick days and more productivity in the workplace. I believe the company should invest in standing desks for employees (Agree—Neutral—Disagree)

Understand that there are only two types of questions

While several articles expound various types of surveys, such as multiple-choice, Likert scales, open-ended, and so on, these  actually refer to the types of responses. On the other hand, there are two survey question types: factual or objective questions and attitude or subjective questions.

Factual questions are aimed at gathering data to categorize and quantify people or events. Hypothetically, people’s responses to factual survey questions can be independently verified and have right and wrong answers. Examples of what objective survey questions cover are things like how often someone exercises, where they were born, and what their purchase habits are.

Attitude questions, on the other hand, measure perceptions, feelings, and judgments. These are things that can't be observed or objectively assessed because they are based on what individuals think or experience. 

Some examples of what subjective survey questions might cover include favorite brands, overall experience at a restaurant, or reasons for not voting for a certain candidate. With subjective survey questions, standardization is critical to ensure that people are interpreting and understanding the questions in the same way.

The objective of your overall survey will influence the type of questions you choose for your survey. The question type also has an impact on the response format (e.g., agree—disagree versus single-answer multiple-choice).

These two types of survey questions produce different kinds of data. Understanding the differences and how to treat each one will ensure you are producing meaningful information.

Ask questions people can answer

This seems obvious, yet there are surveys filled with questions that participants are unequipped to respond to. 

There are three difficulties people have when answering survey questions:

They don’t have the information. Most people can't answer with any accuracy how many times they get up from their desk in a day, but they can give a vague indication (rarely, sometimes, often, never).

They had the information but forgot it. Some people might know their exact income from two years ago, but most won’t. Avoid asking questions that rely on long-term memory or calculations.

They have difficulty placing events in time. Participants may remember the last time they went to the movie theater, but they won’t remember whether it was six months ago or eight. If you must include questions that rely on long-term memory, use memory aids and association—for example, have them play out a scenario in their minds.

Imagine your objective is to learn whether water conservation warnings were effective.

Poor survey question: How much water did you use in your home last month?

Better question: In the last 30 days, how much water would you say your household used? (More than usual, less than usual, about the same as usual)

Reduce the possibility people will try to serve their own interests

Even in online surveys, people exhibit what social scientists call social desirability bias. This is the tendency for people to answer questions in socially acceptable ways. In some cases, it means overreporting good behaviors (“I get up from my desk every hour”) or underreporting perceived negative behaviors (“I drink alcohol once per week”).

Being aware of sensitive and taboo topics in the population you’re studying can help you anticipate these areas. To generate accurate responses, incorporate these strategies into the survey:

Include an introductory statement: By explaining why you’re asking, you set up the question and help them understand the motivation behind it.

Emphasize the anonymity of the survey: People who are confident their responses won’t be identified are more likely to respond honestly.

Put sensitive and demographic questions at the end: Starting a survey with types of questions like age and income can put people off. Your first survey question should be interesting, light, and easy to answer. Once they’ve started, they’re more likely to finish—and answer more sensitive questions.

Stress the importance of accuracy: Discourage dishonest answers by outlining the end goal of the survey. People who believe their answers will help are more likely to be truthful.

Survey questions should be unambiguous

Failing to write clear and specific questions can hinder your respondents’ ability to answer. The standard is that people should have a consistent understanding of what is being asked of them. If someone could interpret a question differently than you intended, the question could be improved. Avoid ambiguities. Don’t take for granted that people know what you mean in a survey question.

Poor survey question: In the past month, how many times have you visited a doctor?

There are two ambiguities in this question. First is the time frame: Does “in the past month” refer to the last 30 days or the most recent calendar month? The second is “doctor.” There's a lot of room for interpretation—do nutritionists, spiritual healers, or psychologists count as doctors?

Better survey question: We'd like to understand how often you have visited a licensed medical professional, including dentists, psychologists, chiropractors, and nutritionists. In the past 30 days, how many times have you visited a medical professional?

If you need to define a term, be sure to put it first. Most people stop paying attention after the question has been asked.

Vague survey question: How would you rate your health?

The understanding of “health” isn’t consistent. Some people consider good health the absence of health conditions. Other people may be thinking about the extent to which they lead a healthy lifestyle.

Better survey question: Do you think you eat enough vegetables? (I eat plenty, I eat just enough, I could eat more, I don’t eat vegetables at all)

This question gets people to respond more directly to your interpretation of “health”: a healthy lifestyle. It may require asking more questions, but it'll give you better data to work with.

Types of questions to avoid

Here are a few question types that should be avoided for the best survey data:

Loaded questions

Do you think there are more postgraduates (Master’s, Ph.D., MBA) because of the country’s weak economy?

The question also includes a false premise: The participant is required to agree that the economy is weak to answer. The question also imposes a causal relationship between the economy and postgraduate study that a person may not see. Loaded questions are inherently biased and push respondents into confirming a particular argument they may not agree with.

Double-barreled questions

Would you like to be rich and famous?

Double-barreled questions are difficult for people to answer. A person might like to be rich but not famous and would thus have trouble responding to this question. Additionally, you don’t know whether they are responding to both parts of the question or just one.

Biased questions

Do you agree that the president is doing a wonderful job on foreign policy?

Biased language that either triggers emotional responses or imposes your opinion can influence the results of your survey. Survey questions should be neutral, simple, and void of emotion.

Assumptive questions

Do you have extra money after paying bills that you invest?

This question assumes that the participant has extra money after paying bills. When a person reads a question they feel is irrelevant to them, it can lead to attrition from the survey. This is why Logic is useful—surveys should adapt to respondents’ answers so they can skip questions that don’t apply to them.

This question would be better asked in two parts: Do you have extra money after paying bills? (If yes: Do you invest the extra money you have after paying bills?)

Second-hand knowledge question

Does your community have a problem with crime?

Not only are “crime” and “problem” vague, it’s challenging for a layperson to report on something related to the community at large. The responses to the question wouldn’t be reliable. Stick to asking questions that cover people’s firsthand knowledge.

If you are trying to understand the prevalence of criminal acts, it would be better to ask: In the past 12 months, have you been the victim of a crime?

Hypothetical questions

If you received a $10,000 bonus at work, would you invest it?

People are terrible at predicting future behavior, particularly in situations they’ve never encountered. Behavior is deeply situational, so what a person might do upon receiving a bonus could depend on whether they had credit card debt, whether they needed to make an immediate purchase, the time of year, and so on.

Ask the right types of questions with Typeform

Understanding the different question types is crucial when it comes to surveys and customer feedback . 

“The goal of writing a survey question is for every potential respondent to interpret it in the same way, be able to respond accurately, and be willing to answer,” explains Tammy Duggan-Herd, PhD, a psychology researcher-turned-marketer.

Focus on creating great survey questions, and you’ll get the answers and insights you need to achieve your goals. 

Ready to conduct effective market research ? Build beautifully designed surveys with the help of Typeform. With customizable survey templates , you can reach your audience faster and more effectively. Start asking the right types of questions today.

About the author

We're Typeform - a team on a mission to transform data collection by bringing you refreshingly different forms.

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32 Questions to Ask on a College Visit

Students should feel free to ask questions during an information session or on tour.

Questions to Ask on a College Visit

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Prospective students should conduct at least basic research to facilitate questions to ask during the information session or on tour, experts say.

Key Takeaways

• Before a campus visit, students should do basic research on the school.
• Students and their families have various opportunities to ask questions.
• No question is dumb.

College visits, whether in person or virtual, can help give prospective students a better feel of campus life.

Contrary to popular belief, however, students don’t need to have that “a-ha” moment when they eventually find the campus where they belong, says Thyra Briggs, vice president for admission and financial aid at Harvey Mudd College in California.

“I just don't think that happens for most students,” she says. “I don't want students to walk away from a visit where that didn't happen thinking, ‘Oh, this is not the place for me.’ This is a long-term relationship. It's not necessarily love at first sight. … In this age of instant gratification, I think it's an important thing to give a school a chance to affect you in a different way.”

For an in-person visit, families should prepare ahead of time by checking the weather and dressing comfortably as tours are mostly held outside.

"Leave plenty of time at an individual campus and allow yourself to enjoy the experience, be present in the moment and (don't) feel rushed because that could also skew your perception of things," says Bryan Gross, vice president for enrollment management at Hartwick College in New York.

It’s also important, experts say, to conduct at least basic research on the institution – even if it’s just looking at their social media accounts – to help facilitate questions to ask during the information session or on tour.

"We know that for some of you, this may be the first time you are going through this," Briggs says. "For others, it's a different student (going through the process) than the student you had who's older. So there’s no bad questions. ... I would hope that any college would welcome any question a student would ask.”

Here are 32 example questions, collected from college admissions and enrollment professions, that students don't always think to ask on college visits. These questions – edited for length or clarity – were provided by Briggs, Gross and Brian Lindeman, assistant vice president of admissions and financial aid at Macalester College  in Minnesota.

Questions About Admissions

• Does this school consider demonstrated interest?
• Is there an opportunity for prospective students to sit in on a class to experience a real lecture?
• Are there options to receive a lunch or dinner pass at the dining hall to try the food?

Questions About Academics

• Where do students typically study?
• How does advising work?
• What are the academic strengths of this school?
• What opportunities are there for study abroad and exchange programs?
• If available, are these global programs directly run by this school – where faculty members travel with students – or are these study abroad programs outsourced to a third-party company?
• Are these study abroad experiences built into the tuition or are there additional fees to participate?

Questions About Financial Aid

• What is this school's average financial aid package?
• What is the average net cost when students enroll?
• What is the current level of funding with endowed scholarships – how much are donors contributing to scholarships?
• Do you offer merit aid ? If so, what are you looking for in a candidate?

Questions About Campus Housing and Community

• What are the housing options?
• What are the fee structures for these different options?
• Are students required to live on campus ?
• How does your campus define diversity, equity, inclusion and belonging?

Questions to Ask Your Tour Guide to Gauge Campus Life

• What surprised you about this school? What's something you didn't expect?
• What keeps you coming back to this school each year?
• Have we seen your favorite place on campus?
• What event on campus gets the biggest turnout every year?
• If you were struggling with an issue, would you know who to turn to? Who would that be?

Questions About Work and Research Opportunities

• What are the opportunities for undergraduate research on campus?
• How do those research opportunities give students valuable hands-on experiences that enhance their resumes?
• What are some specific ways this school helps students gain hands-on experience through internships ?

Questions About Student and Career Outcomes

• What is the retention rate from freshman to sophomore year?
• What is the five-year graduation rate?
• What is the job-attainment rate of graduates within six months of graduating?
• What percent of students are going on to graduate school ?
• What percent of students are intentionally taking time off post-graduation compared to those who are not able to find jobs?
• What size is the alumni network?
• How are alumni actively engaging with recent graduates to help connect them specifically to opportunities in their fields?

Searching for a college? Get our  complete rankings  of Best Colleges.

Unique College Campus Visits

Tags: colleges , education , campus life , college applications , students

Ask an Alum: Making the Most Out of College

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Survey software FAQs

A survey is a method of gathering information using relevant questions from a sample of people with the aim of understanding populations as a whole. Surveys provide a critical source of data and insights for everyone engaged in the information economy, from businesses to media, to government and academics.

Survey software is a tool used to design, send and analyze surveys online. It’s the primary method of collecting feedback at scale whether that’s a simple questionnaire or a detailed study such as customer or employee feedback as part of a more structured experience management program. Cloud-based survey technology has revolutionized the ability to get data, quickly, from a large number of respondents by automating the process of sending out surveys across a variety of channels from websites and mobile to apps, email and even chatbots.

Surveys provide quick, quantitative data on a wide audience’s opinions, preferences, and experiences. They are cost-effective, easy to administer, and can reach a large population. They also allow for anonymity, increasing the chance of honest responses, and their standardized format makes it easy to aggregate and analyze data for clear insights into trends and patterns.

To create a survey , define the objectives, choose target participants, design clear and concise questions, select a survey tool or platform, and ensure the layout is logical. Test the survey, distribute it, and collect responses. Remember to keep it as brief as possible while gathering the necessary information.

To write survey questions , be clear and specific to avoid confusion. Use simple, unbiased language, and opt for closed-ended questions for easier analysis. Ensure questions are relevant to your objectives, and avoid leading or loaded questions that could influence answers. Pretest your questions to catch any issues and revise as needed for clarity and objectivity.

Now used by more than 18,000+ brands, and supporting more than 1.3 billion surveys a year, Qualtrics empowers organizations to gather invaluable customer insights and take immediate, game-changing action – with zero coding required. The Qualtrics survey tool makes it easy to get answers to your most important marketing, branding, customer, and product questions, with easy-to-use tools that can handle everything from simple customer feedback questionnaires to detailed research projects.

Qualtrics Strategic Research pricing is based on interactions including number of survey responses and minutes of video feedback. Our special online pricing offer starts at $420 per month and can be purchased here . Alternatively, you can get started with a free account with basic functionality, or get 30 days access to advanced features with a free trial .

Yes, we offer a free account option with basic survey functionality.

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Humanities and Social Sciences Communications volume  11 , Article number:  609 ( 2024 ) Cite this article

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This study delves into the dynamics shaping happiness levels in Indonesia before and during the COVID-19 pandemic, specifically emphasizing gender and residence-type disparities. Using data from the 2017 and 2021 Happiness Level Measurement Survey, it offers insights into how different population segments were affected. The analysis employs a multilevel mixed-effects ordered logistic model, considering individuals nested within provinces, and measures pandemic severity using positive COVID-19 cases per 100,000 residents. This study evaluates pandemic-related happiness shifts using nationwide cross-sectional survey data from two timeframes. It derives substantial statistical strength from data involving 137,000+ respondents gathered through comprehensive face-to-face interviews. It mitigates recall bias by capturing happiness at two distinct time points, avoiding retrospective measures. The study examines and validates four research questions. First, higher COVID-19 cases in provinces correlate with lower happiness. Second, though women were happier than men, the pandemic reduced this gender-based gap. Third, urban residents were generally happier than rural residents, but the pandemic narrowed this difference. All the estimates exhibit statistical significance at the 1 percent level. Finally, while provincial poverty showed minimal happiness impact, a negative association between unequal per capita expenditure and happiness emerged, providing partial backing for investigating the role of macroeconomic conditions. This study reveals that the COVID-19 pandemic altered happiness dynamics in Indonesia, narrowing gender and residence-based gaps. It also emphasizes the role of socioeconomic factors, particularly unequal per capita expenditure, in influencing individual happiness, highlighting implications for targeted policy interventions.

Introduction

Studying factors influencing our happiness has been a persistent and important topic of investigation over the years. Happiness holds significant implications for our lives, serving not only as a personal aspiration but also as a societal objective (Petrovič et al. 2021 ; Veenhoven 2012 ). Scholars and policymakers have been paying growing attention to subjective well-being (SWB) measures in recent decades. These measures have been sought as alternative ways to gauge economic and social progress, addressing concerns with traditional welfare indicators (Ahmadiani et al. 2022 ; Deaton and Stone 2013 ; Delhey and Kroll 2013 ). Notably, Oishi and Diener’s ( 2014 ) study revealed that self-reported happiness and life satisfaction could effectively reflect objective societal and economic conditions, quantify individuals’ hardships, and evaluate the effectiveness of specific public policies.

The impact of COVID-19 on SWB presents various perspectives. Firstly, a global decline in SWB is evident across studies, including those in China (Yang and Ma, 2020 ), Germany (Bittmann, 2022a ; Möhring et al. 2021 ), and a multi-country study encompassing China, Japan, South Korea, Italy, the United Kingdom, and the United States (Nguyen 2021 ). Secondly, the World Happiness Report (WHR) 2021 indicates a non-significant increase in global life evaluation indicators from 2017–2019 to 2020 (Helliwell et al. 2021 ), similarly reflected in Rajkumar’s ( 2023 ) research across 78 countries. Thirdly, French researchers discovered improved self-reported health and well-being during lockdown compared to previous years (Recchi et al. 2020 ). These diverse outcomes underscore the complex link between the pandemic and individuals’ SWB, arising from individual and household differences, contextual factors, and varying COVID-19 severity across regions.

As the world’s fourth most populous nation, Indonesia has confronted profound repercussions from the pandemic, ranking 20th worldwide in total reported COVID-19 cases and 11th in COVID-19-related fatalities (Worldometer 2023 ). Moreover, the variability in COVID-19 exposure across provinces and the distinction between urban and rural areas within Indonesia is noteworthy. Footnote 1 In light of these circumstances, it becomes essential to undertake an exhaustive study of how the pandemic’s severity has uniquely influenced the happiness of Indonesians.

This study aims to empirically examine the factors influencing shifts in happiness levels before and during the COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesian society. Given the indications from prior research that the pandemic affects women (Dang and Nguyen 2020 ; Fortier 2020 ; Gausman and Langer 2020 ; Giurge et al. 2021 ) and urban dwellers (López-Ruiz et al. 2021 ; Shams and Kadow 2022 ) disproportionately compared to other their respected counterparts, our investigation will primarily focus on comprehending the distinct contributions of gender and residency to the observed changes in happiness levels. By exploring how being male or female and where people live affect changes in happiness during the pandemic, we can better understand the different experiences and difficulties faced by different population segments. Significantly, this study stands as a pioneering effort to investigate the changes in happiness levels stemming from the COVID-19 pandemic among the broader populace of Indonesia.

This study addresses several limitations of existing literature on changes in happiness during the COVID-19 pandemic. Many of these previous investigations have not effectively addressed the following limitations: concentration on specific population segments (e.g., healthcare workers, students), employment of single-point-in-time data collection, dependence on convenience sampling for participant recruitment, administration of online surveys, limited observation durations, and reliance on participants’ retrospective reports of pre-pandemic circumstances.

We overcome these limitations because we use national-level cross-sectional survey data for two different points in time. First, our survey data covers the period before and during the pandemic, enabling us to examine changes in self-reported happiness levels associated with the pandemic’s impact. Using survey data from over 137,000 respondents provides this study with robust statistical power, enhancing the precision of our analysis of happiness level changes over time. Second, our survey data was collected through face-to-face interviews, employing a rigorous sampling method. This approach ensures a more representative sample distribution, avoiding biases from self-selection in online surveys (Andrade 2020 ).

Third, our study evaluates happiness at multiple time points. This method acts as a temporal anchor, assisting respondents in recalling and distinguishing their experiences more accurately. Given that respondents often generalize or simplify their experiences when recalling over an extended timeframe, evaluating happiness at different times enables a comprehensive capture of fluctuations and variations in individuals’ emotional states. In this study, assessing happiness at two distinct time points, before and during the COVID-19 pandemic, guarantees a more accurate portrayal of an individual’s SWB and alleviates recall bias (Hyman 2013 ; Tadic et al. 2014 ).

This study consists of six sections. In Section 2, we offer a summary of pertinent prior studies, followed by an investigation into the research questions posed in this study. Section 3 explains the methodologies and models used and outlines the data sources. Section 4 examines and analyzes the outcomes from the estimations, while Section 5 discusses the results. Finally, Section 6 summarizes the findings and offers policy recommendations based on the results.

Literature review and research questions

Theoretical background.

The reactivity theory , embraced by social scientists, including economists and sociologists, asserts that SWB, particularly happiness, is influenced by objective external conditions at both the individual and social levels (Lee 2022 ). These objective conditions encompass various factors such as income, age, gender, marital status, occupation, family structure, geographic region, and government policies (Diener 1984 ). According to the reactivity theory, individuals’ perceptions and assessments of their happiness primarily stem from their passive responses to these objective conditions. In simpler terms, individuals tend to react to the circumstances and external factors surrounding them, significantly impacting their SWB. Within the framework of our study, positive events like economic improvements or technological advancements consistently raise happiness levels. In contrast, adverse events such as natural disasters (Calvo et al. 2015 ; Rehdanz et al. 2015 ; Sekulova and van den Bergh 2016 ) or the COVID-19 pandemic tend to decrease happiness.

The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on happiness in Indonesia

Before the pandemic, numerous studies in Indonesia explored factors influencing happiness across various scopes. These studies encompassed general population happiness levels (Aryogi and Wulansari 2016 ; Landiyanto et al. 2011 ; Sohn 2013 ; Sujarwoto et al. 2017 ) and specific demographic segments (Anna et al. 2019 on fishermen; Sollis et al. 2023 on native-immigrant). Regional studies (Firmansyah et al. 2017 ; Nandini and Afiatno 2020 ) shed light on context-specific happiness factors. Specific topics like religiosity (Kurniawati and Pierewan 2020 ), height (Sohn 2014 ), decentralization (Sujarwoto and Tampubolon 2015 ), and income inequality (Furwanti et al. 2021 ) were examined, providing valuable insights. Furthermore, Pattinasarany ( 2018 ) conducted a cross-national analysis exploring happiness and life satisfaction determinants in Indonesia, Thailand, Japan, and South Korea.

In both pre-pandemic and pandemic contexts in Indonesia, the World Happiness Report (WHR) and the Happiness Index are commonly used measures of happiness. Footnote 2 However, these two references provide contradictory information regarding the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the happiness levels of individuals in Indonesia. The WHR indicates a decrease in the happiness level of Indonesian people from 5.345 from 2018 to 2020 to 5.240 from 2019 to 2021 (Helliwell et al. 2020 ; 2021 ; 2022 ). In contrast, the Happiness Index shows an increase from 70.69 in 2017 to 71.49 in 2021 (Badan Pusat Statistik 2021a ).

Multiple studies have explored the effects of the pandemic on SWB in Indonesia. Tjahjana et al. ( 2021 ) conducted an online survey a month after the pandemic, indicating that 41% of respondents reported decreased happiness. Rahmanita et al. ( 2021 ) collected data 1–3 months post-pandemic, revealing that 59% of respondents expressed happiness in staying at home. Iskandarsyah et al. ( 2022 ) explored the effects of COVID-19 information and behaviors on anxiety and happiness a month post-outbreak, noting increased information searches linked to higher anxiety but more testing and treatment information tied to less anxiety and greater happiness. Dwidienawati et al. ( 2021 ) found ongoing pandemic adaptation challenges, with no improvement in happiness or life satisfaction reported after a year. Halimatussadiah et al. ( 2021 ) conducted two cross-sectional online surveys in 2020 and 2021, revealing a trend towards heightened happiness. In a separate study, Borualogo and Casas ( 2022 ) collected data during the same period, discovering higher SWB and positive affect among boys during the pandemic and improved satisfaction in friend interactions.

The following are overviews of studies using general population survey data to understand the pandemic’s impact on SWB in Indonesia’s neighboring countries. Tambyah et al. ( 2023 ) found a significant decrease in life satisfaction among Singaporeans, dropping from 4.51 in 2016 to 4.18 in 2022 on a scale of 1–6. The study highlighted health risks and job security as primary concerns during the COVID-19 pandemic. Phulkerd et al. ( 2023 ) reported that Thai adults had an average life satisfaction score of 22.4 during the 2021 COVID-19 epidemic, down from 25.5 before the pandemic in 2019 on a 5–35-point scale.

Research questions

This study investigates four specific research questions (RQs) to elucidate and support the study objectives within the broader context of the Indonesian population. Limited research has explored the impact of COVID-19 severity on self-reported happiness at subnational levels due to a lack of reliable data. However, some exception studies exist (Bittmann 2022a ; Le and Nguyen 2021 ). In Indonesia, the impact of the pandemic varies across provinces and districts, each of which implemented unique policies to curb the spread of the pandemic and cope with its consequences (Arifin et al. 2022 ). This study examines a connection between the severity of COVID-19 and self-reported happiness, anticipating that increased severity will correspond to decreased reported happiness.

RQ1: To what extent does the severity of COVID-19 contribute to a reduction in individuals’ happiness levels?

Global research suggests women typically report higher life evaluations than men (Blanchflower and Bryson 2022 ; Blanchflower and Oswald 2011 ; Fortin et al. 2015 ). However, women worldwide bear a disproportionate burden of socio-economic challenges during crises like natural disasters, economic downturns, and pandemics. Such inequity stems from gender roles and undervaluation of women’s work, leading to increased caregiving responsibilities and exposing women to short-term economic instability and long-term welfare declines (Dinella et al. 2023 ; Fortier 2020 ; Langer et al. 2015 ). This study investigates whether the severity of COVID-19 has narrowed the gap in self-reported happiness between women and men.

RQ2: To what extent does the severity of the COVID-19 pandemic lessen women’s happiness advantage over men?

International evidence indicates that, at low levels of economic development, substantial gaps favor urban over rural areas in income, education, and occupational structure, resulting in higher SWB for urban residents than for rural residents. Such higher life satisfaction holds despite urban challenges like pollution and congestion. However, these economic disparities diminish as development progresses, enabling rural areas to close the gap and even surpass urban life satisfaction (Burger et al. 2020 ; Easterlin et al. 2011 ). In Indonesia, Sohn ( 2013 ) identified a positive association between living in urban areas and happiness. Additionally, Sujarwoto ( 2021 ) observed that individuals residing in rural settings expressed lower life satisfaction than their urban counterparts. Given the COVID-19 pandemic’s disproportionate impact on urban areas compared to rural regions, an intriguing query arises: How did the severity of the pandemic influence the link between urban living and self-reported happiness?

RQ3: To what extent does the severity of the COVID-19 pandemic diminish the happiness advantage of urban residents compared to rural residents?

Incorporating contextual variables in measuring self-reported happiness in a multilevel framework is crucial for more accurate analyses and informed policymaking (Ballas and Tranmer 2012 ; Gómez-Balcácer et al. 2023 ). Analytically, incorporating contextual variables like macroeconomic and socio-economic conditions enhances research depth and accuracy. From a policy standpoint, this approach provides a robust foundation for informed decision-making, resulting in more effective and targeted policies. This study utilizes three provincial-level contextual variables: COVID-19 severity (as discussed in RQ1), poverty incidence, and income inequality.

RQ4: To what extent do provincial macroeconomic conditions, specifically poverty and income inequality, impact individuals’ happiness levels?

These research questions delve into diverse facets of the pandemic’s influence on happiness levels within Indonesian society. They examine consequences such as health risks, economic disruptions, and social isolation (RQ1). Furthermore, they investigate the role of societal norms, gender roles, and structural inequalities in women’s experiences during the pandemic (RQ2) and assess potential challenges in urban areas (RQ3). Finally, the study evaluates the impact of macroeconomic factors, specifically poverty and income disparities, on happiness levels during the pandemic (RQ4).

Materials and methods

Multilevel mixed-effects ordered logistic model.

In this study, we estimate a multilevel mixed-effects ordered logistic model that incorporates nesting while considering the dependent variables’ categorical nature and providing adjusted standard errors that add precision to the coefficients (Rabe-Hesketh and Skrondal 2022 ). By using multilevel models, we can control for individual and province variables, isolating the impact of pandemic severity on self-reported happiness levels (Mehmetoglu and Jakobsen 2017 ; Snijders and Bosker 2012 ). Observations in our study comprise individuals (level 1) nested within provinces (level 2). Our multilevel regressions are computed with random intercepts for each province to account for the fact that provinces are affected differently by the pandemic and that respondents in one province might be more similar than respondents in another. Finally, we used an ordered logistic model due to the ordered nature of the dependent variable.

We postulate a latent variable (y*) representing an individual’s underlying happiness. In this study, we will estimate two models: the ‘main’ (hereafter: Main Model) and the ‘with interaction terms’ (hereafter: Interaction Model) models. The Main Model’s latent variable is associated with individual traits, household attributes, and provincial-level contextual variables. Individual traits encompass gender, age along with its squared term, marital status, highest education level attained, and employment status. Household-level attributes include residence type and household income. Three contextual variables at the provincial level consist of the poverty rate, income inequality, and the count of COVID-19-infected individuals per 100,000 population, reflecting COVID-19 severity. In contrast, the Interaction Model encompasses the Main Model and incorporates additional interaction variables between gender and residence-type covariates with the severity of the pandemic measure. Footnote 3 We assume that individuals residing in provinces hardest hit by the pandemic will experience a more significant decline in happiness than those in the less affected provinces.

The Main Model is specified as follows:

while the Interaction Model is specified as follows:

where: \({y}_{{ij}}^{* }\) is the unobserved happiness for individual i who resides in province j (latent variable); \({x1}_{{ij}}\) is the individual and household characteristics for individual i living in province j; \({x2}_{j}\) is the provincial contextual variables for province j; \({{COVID}}_{j}\) is the COVID-19 pandemic severity measure for province j; \({{x3}_{{ij}}* {COVID}}_{j}\) is the interaction terms of gender and type of residence covariates with COVID-19 severity measure; this study assesses three specifications incorporating interaction terms: one specific to women, another specific to urban settings, and a third encompassing both women and urban factors; \({z}_{{ij}}\) is the covariates corresponding to the random effects; as this model follows a random-intercept model, \({z}_{{ij}}\) is simply the scalar 1; \({u}_{j}\) is the random effects; and \({\epsilon }_{{ij}}\) is the errors, distributed as logistic with mean 0 and variance π 2 /3 and are independent of \({u}_{j}\) .

This model, \({x1}_{{ij}}\) and \({x2}_{j}\) do not contain a constant term because its effect is absorbed into the cutpoints (κ).

Table 1 illustrates the estimation strategies employed in this study, encompassing three distinct approaches presented in 12 specifications. First, the Main Model uses all observations to illustrate the relationship between happiness levels and each covariate. Second, the Interaction Model examines how COVID-19 severity affects the connection between being female, living in urban areas, and happiness levels. The second approach investigates moderation effects. Lastly, the third approach delves into the factors impacting happiness across specific subgroups based on gender, residence type, and region. This granular analysis offers insights into potential differences or similarities in the determinants of happiness among these subgroups, aiming to unravel complex relationships among predictors in understanding SWB across diverse contexts.

Model estimation is performed using the meologit procedure in Stata 17.0 (StataCorp 2021 ). The meologit procedure estimates ordered logistic regression containing both fixed effects (in this study: \({x1}_{{ij}}\) and \({x2}_{j}\) along with their interaction terms) and random effects ( \({u}_{j}\) ).

The Happiness Level Measurement Survey (SPTK)

This study relies on the Happiness Level Measurement Survey (SPTK) from 2017 and 2021, administered by the Central Statistics Agency of Indonesia (Badan Pusat Statistik; BPS) (Badan Pusat Statistik 2017 ; 2021a ). Footnote 4 The 2021 wave of SPTK fieldwork took place from July 1 to August 27, 2021, during Indonesia’s peak of the COVID-19 pandemic. The data relating to COVID-19 exposure, i.e., total positive cases of COVID-19, was taken from KawalCOVID19, who collected data primarily from the Ministry of Health. The macroeconomic data on poverty levels and inequality of per capita expenditures (Gini coefficient) are all sourced from the BPS.

SPTK extends across every province and district in Indonesia, where districts consist of kabupaten (regencies) and kota (municipalities). Within each district, the BPS has established a master sampling frame comprising Census Blocks (BS) for the periodic implementation of various surveys. A BS constitutes a designated enumeration zone within a village locality consisting of 80 to 120 residential, non-residential, or household census buildings with distinct boundaries identifiable in the field. BS selection for SPTK is selected probabilistically from the master sampling frame. Household updating takes place at each selected BS, with the selection of household respondents based on updated listings that are stratified according to factors such as the household head’s education and the household’s structure.

The data collection involves conducting direct interviews with respondents utilizing structured questionnaires and computer-assisted personal interviewing applications. Footnote 5 The unit of analysis is a randomly selected household. In each sampled household, the head of the household or the spouse of the head of the household (wife/husband) is selected as the respondent to represent the household. This study focuses on 137,958 respondents aged 25–80 years who are working or spend most of their time taking care of the household. Footnote 6 Apart from the level of happiness, SPTK contributed data at the individual and household levels.

Level of happiness

The level of happiness is evaluated using the so-called Cantril ladder (Cantril 1965 ; Levin and Currie 2014 ). The SPTK employs a ladder diagram to measure happiness, prompting respondents to visualize themselves on a scale with steps numbered from zero at the bottom to ten at the top. Respondents are asked to evaluate their happiness using the question, “How happy are you with life as a whole?” The answer ranges from 0 (very unhappy) to 10 (very happy).

Figure 1 shows that the distributions of happiness are skewed to the left. Most respondents evaluate their happiness on the eighth rung (34.1 percent in 2017 and 35.6 percent in 2022). The national average was calculated at 7.78 in 2017, while for 2021, it will be slightly lower at 7.76.

Source: Calculated from SPTK.

For a comparative analysis of self-reported happiness in this study with neighboring nations, Pattinasarany ( 2018 ) investigated happiness and life satisfaction in Indonesia, Thailand, Japan, and South Korea to compare self-reported happiness with neighboring nations. The study used collected data to explore lifestyles and values related to social well-being in seven Asian countries, including the Philippines, Taiwan, and Vietnam. Results revealed similar happiness distribution, with Indonesia and Thailand displaying a left-skewed pattern, indicating majority contentment. Indonesian adults reported slightly higher average happiness (7.68) than their Thai counterparts (7.65). In Japan (6.25) and Korea (5.93), happiness levels exhibited a more normal distribution, with averages not reaching the same highs as observed in Indonesia and Thailand.

Analyzing happiness at the provincial level indicates that Gorontalo and North Maluku reported the highest average levels in 2017 (8.43) and 2021 (8.54), respectively (Fig. 2 ). In contrast, the lowest averages were recorded in East Nusa Tenggara in 2017 (7.32) and Bali in 2021 (7.26). While the national average in 2017 and 2021 remains relatively unchanged, significant differences emerge at the provincial level between the two years. Providing context, half of the 34 provinces saw an increase in their average happiness levels from 2017 to 2021, while the remaining provinces experienced a decline. Central Sulawesi notably showed the most substantial surge, with an increase of 0.347 points, while Bengkulu province witnessed the most significant decrease, dropping by 0.387 points. Recognizing the nested nature of individuals within provinces, the variance in average happiness levels between years at the provincial level becomes a crucial consideration.

In our examination of gender and residence type on changes in SWB during the pandemic, Fig. 3 illustrates average happiness levels categorized by gender and residence type. The left panel reveals that, on average, women reported higher happiness levels than men. However, there was a slight increase in men’s average happiness during the pandemic (+0.03 points), while women experienced a decrease (−0.06 points). In the right panel, it is evident that individuals residing in urban areas typically demonstrated higher average happiness levels than those in rural settings. Interestingly, individuals in rural areas reported higher happiness levels in 2021 compared to 2017 (+0.08 points). In contrast, those living in urban areas displayed the opposite trend, experiencing a decline in happiness levels over the same period (−0.15 points).

Given the limited number of respondents rating their happiness level between zero and five, these five responses were aggregated to achieve a more balanced distribution. Furthermore, data recoding follows the ordered logistic method, requiring each cell to include at least three percent of observations.

Total COVID-19 cases per 100,000 population

In this study, the evaluation of the severity of the COVID-19 pandemic relies on the total population with confirmed exposure to COVID-19. Although daily data has been available since March 2, 2020, the SPTK data lacks specific interview date information. A cut-off point, set on June 30, 2021, was established to determine COVID-19 severity for all survey respondents, conveniently aligning with the day preceding the start of SPTK face-to-face interviews. We used a normalization process to enable meaningful province-to-province comparisons, specifically normalizing the data per 100,000 population.

Figure 4 illustrates the unequal distribution of confirmed COVID-19 cases among provinces. DKI Jakarta records the highest incidence of COVID-19 cases, reaching 5210 per 100,000 population. Conversely, North Sumatera reports the lowest number of cases, only 246 per 100,000 population. These findings underscore the diverse impact and transmission rates of COVID-19 observed across different provinces.

Source: Calculated from KawalCOVID-19.

Concluding the data discussion, Table 2 displays the mean and standard deviation of all variables used in this study, categorized by year.

Estimation results

Table 3 displays happiness level estimates from a multilevel mixed-effects ordered logistic analysis covering the Main and Interaction Models. The Main Model serves as the baseline, while the Interaction Model estimates examine potential changes in gender and type of residence covariates influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic.

We begin by discussing the results of the Null Model, which incorporates no predictors (Table 3 , column [1]). The Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC) for the Null Model is 0.038 (second row from the bottom), indicating that approximately 3.8 percent of the variability in an underlying response is associated with differences between provinces. Footnote 7 Sommet and Morselli ( 2017 ) noted that many authors argue that an ICC below 5 percent, considered insignificant and negligible, leads them to treat the individual as a single unit of analysis, hence opting for a single-level analysis. Nevertheless, we persist with multilevel modeling, recognizing that the minimal ICC (except when zero) does not signify the absence of variation in respondents’ happiness levels between provinces. Moreover, disregarding this variation can lead to inaccurate estimates and potentially result in inappropriate policy decisions. The ICCs for the Main and Interaction Models are modest, ranging between 0.037 and 0.041.

The Likelihood Ratio (LR) test, located in the third row from the bottom, compares the multilevel mixed-effects ordered logistic model with the standard (single-level) ordered logistic model, favoring the former. A p-value of 0.000 for the LR test signifies significant variation in self-reported happiness levels between provinces. The “Variances: Province (constant)” estimates in the fourth row from the bottom indicate the variation in self-reported happiness levels attributed to differences between provinces after accounting for fixed effects and other covariates in the model. This information clarifies how the province-level factor (in our case, poverty rates, Gini coefficient of per capita expenditures, and severity of the pandemic measure) contributes to the overall variability in the outcome. A higher estimated variance suggests a more significant variation in the outcome between provinces.

The severity of the COVID-19 pandemic

The estimation results indicate that individuals in provinces with more COVID-19 cases per 100,000 population tended to assign lower ratings to their happiness (Table 3 , column [2]). Footnote 8 Our findings align with international research. A study across China, Japan, South Korea, Italy, the United Kingdom, and the United States found that individuals in areas with elevated COVID-19 rates are more likely to report lower happiness levels (Nguyen 2021 ). Similarly, a German study using panel data during the initial COVID-19 wave observed a decline in life satisfaction in regions with higher infection rates (Bittmann 2022a ).

Concerns about the robustness of conclusions drawn from estimations using the entire dataset when examining specific characteristics are typical. Table 4 provides Main Model estimates disaggregated by gender (assessing whether estimation results differ for male or female respondents), type of residence (rural versus urban), and major regions in Indonesia (Sumatera, Java-Bali, and Other regions). Table 5 facilitates a comparison of the three primary correlates: gender (women), residence type (urban), and the severity of the COVID-19 pandemic.

These findings indicate that the detrimental impact of the pandemic’s severity on happiness levels is observable for both men and women, as well as for residents in rural areas and the Java-Bali and Other regions of Indonesia. However, the absence of statistical significance for urban residents may be attributed to the predominant concentration of the COVID-19 pandemic in urban areas of Indonesia. Similarly, the lack of statistical significance for the Sumatera region is associated with the lower pandemic severity observed in that region. Despite variations across different samples, these consistent findings underscore the negative association between the severity of the COVID-19 pandemic and individuals’ happiness levels.

In Indonesia, on average, women reported higher happiness levels than men (Table 3 , column [2]). Upon analyzing a disaggregated sample by residence type, the results indicate that women exhibit higher happiness levels than men in both rural and urban areas (Table 4 , columns [8] and [9]). Moreover, women consistently report higher happiness levels than men across all three regions (Sumatera, Java, and others) (Table 4 , columns [10], [11], and [12]).

A noteworthy observation is the degree to which women in the Java-Bali region experience a smaller happiness advantage over men compared to their counterparts in Sumatera and other regions. One potential explanation is the Java-Bali region’s reputation for embracing a more egalitarian gender culture than other parts of Indonesia, suggesting that gender-based disparities in happiness might be comparatively smaller in the Java-Bali region than in other regions (Hayati et al. 2014 ; Utomo 2012 ). Moreover, the Java-Bali region’s higher level of development compared to other parts of Indonesia contributes to enhanced gender equality across various facets, including well-being and happiness.

The Interaction Model estimates reveal that in 2021, the severity of the pandemic led to a decline in women’s happiness relative to men’s (Table 3 , columns [3] and [5]). These results indicate that the pandemic’s effect diminishes the relative advantage of being female in terms of happiness levels. Our findings align with several studies (Blanchflower and Bryson 2022 ; Nguyen 2021 ), all reporting a decrease in women’s life satisfaction and happiness compared to men during the pandemic.

Type of residence

Individuals residing in urban areas generally experience higher levels of happiness than their rural counterparts (Table 3 , column [2]). Easterlin et al. ( 2011 ) provided a comprehensive explanation for such findings, highlighting that the availability of material goods like food, clothing, and shelter in urban areas contributes to higher happiness. However, they also caution that urban life comes with challenges, including traffic congestion, pollution, and feelings of alienation, which can negatively impact happiness.

The difference in happiness levels between urban and rural residents remains consistent across diverse demographics (Table 4 , columns [6], [7], [10], [11], and [12]). Particularly noteworthy is the narrower happiness gap between urban and rural residents in the Java-Bali region (Table 4 , column [11]), indicating that rural areas in Java-Bali may benefit from enhanced public services and infrastructure compared to other regions. This improved availability of resources in rural Java-Bali contributes to a more equitable distribution of opportunities and resources between urban and rural residents.

Nevertheless, as per the Interaction Model, the pandemic’s severity has weakened the traditional happiness advantage of individuals in urban areas compared to their rural counterparts (Table 2 , columns [4] and [5]). Our observation finds backing in urban Pakistan, where Shams and Kadow (2020) documented a decrease in socio-economic satisfaction amid the pandemic, particularly noticeable among unemployed individuals, married couples, men, and older demographics.

Contextual characteristics

The association between poverty levels and happiness lacked statistical significance, suggesting that the poverty rates in a respondent’s province do not influence their happiness. One possible explanation is the substantial variation in poverty rates among districts within a province. For example, in 2021, East Java Province exhibited a poverty rate of 11.4 percent, yet the rates across its 38 kabupaten / kota ranged from 4.1 to 23.8 percent (Badan Pusat Statistik 2021b ). Nevertheless, a deviation from the typical trend is evident in the Java-Bali region, exposing a negative correlation between higher poverty levels and happiness among respondents (Table 4 , column [11]). This finding aligns with the higher poverty population in the Java-Bali region compared other regions in Indonesia (Badan Pusat Statistik 2021b ).

Muthia and Isbah’s ( 2022 ) study sheds light on the lack of a correlation between poverty and happiness, particularly within the impoverished community of DI Yogyakarta Province, Indonesia. The authors argue that impoverished individuals may not find happiness in their economic situation but discover contentment. This occurrence is ascribed to the prevailing belief system and local culture, heavily influenced by the nerimo attitude, emphasizing the acceptance of one’s circumstances. By adopting this mindset, impoverished individuals improve their psychological well-being, regardless of their difficulties.

Regarding inequality, the estimation results reveal an inverse connection between per capita expenditure inequality at the provincial level and self-reported happiness levels. In another study, Furwanti et al. ( 2021 ) utilized cross-sectional data from all Indonesian provinces and a path analysis model, revealing that income inequality significantly and negatively influences happiness in Indonesia.

The findings of this study align with several international reviews exploring the relationship between inequality and happiness. For instance, a review by Ferrer-i-Carbonell and Ramos ( 2014 ) demonstrates a negative correlation between income inequality and happiness in Western countries. However, the connection in non-Western countries is diverse and less conclusive. In addition, Schroder ( 2018 ) discovered that individuals perceive their SWB as lower when inequality within their own country increases over time, but not when it is higher compared to another country.

Individual characteristics

Following is a concise discussion of individual characteristics that fall outside the scope of the four research questions outlined in this study.

Our model incorporates respondents’ age in quadratic terms, revealing a U-shaped pattern in happiness assessment (Easterlin 2004 ; Blanchflower 2021 ; Bittmann 2022b ; Toshkov 2022 ). Generally, happiness levels decline with age until reaching a certain point, after which they begin to rise. In the Main Model, this turning point is identified at 49. The U-shaped pattern corresponds to the “midlife dip” phenomenon, wherein individuals often undergo a decline in happiness during midlife before it subsequently increases later in life, as discussed by Blanchflower and Graham ( 2020 ). Factors such as heightened responsibilities, financial pressures, and changes in personal and professional circumstances can influence this midlife dip.

Individuals in a marital union tend to experience higher happiness levels than unmarried or divorced individuals. This observation is supported by Frey’s ( 2018 ) comprehensive review, affirming that married individuals generally express higher happiness levels than those living alone or in unmarried partnerships. The author highlights the role of marriage or a stable partnership in mitigating loneliness, thereby assisting in alleviating stress related to work life. Various studies (Addai et al. 2014 ; Tambyah et al. 2023 ; Wu and Zhu 2016 ) have also identified the positive influence of being in a marital relationship.

A positive correlation is evident between education and happiness. This finding indicates that higher educational attainment aligns with higher self-reported happiness levels. As noted by Frey ( 2018 ), individuals with advanced education tend to enhance their abilities and gain increased access to opportunities, resulting in heightened life satisfaction. The association between education and happiness has been thoroughly examined, including within Indonesia (Landiyanto et al. 2011 ; Sujarwoto and Tampubolon 2015 ; Rahayu 2016 ). These investigations consistently affirm a positive association between education and happiness within the Indonesian context.

In general, employed respondents report lower happiness levels, although differences exist between men and women. Among male respondents, those actively engaged in work display higher happiness levels than those who are not. This positive correlation between working and happiness among men corresponds with findings from various international studies (Clark and Oswald 1994 ; Di Tella et al. 2001 ; Winkelmann and Winkelmann 1998 ). Conversely, employed individuals report lower happiness within the female sample than those unemployed. To the extent that the SPTK dataset defines those not employed as spending most of their time taking care of the household, the negative association between employment and happiness among women can be interpreted as women who are employed facing a double burden of responsibilities at work and home (Chen et al. 2018 ).

Individuals reporting higher household earnings exhibit higher happiness levels. However, the ongoing debate on whether income contributes to increased happiness encompasses diverse viewpoints. Some studies advocate for a positive correlation between income and self-reported happiness and, therefore, in line with our findings (Diener and Biswas-Diener 2002 ; Frey and Stutzer 2002 ; Lim et al. 2020 ; Yiengprugsawan et al. 2011 ; Yu et al. 2019 ). Conversely, other studies propose that the impact of income on happiness becomes negligible once a certain income threshold is reached (Kahneman and Deaton 2010 ; Muresan et al. 2020 ).

Discussions

Our analysis reveals a significant decline in self-reported happiness among Indonesians due to the severity of the COVID-19 pandemic, addressing RQ1. The pandemic severity measure has eroded the longstanding happiness advantage for women and urban residents, addressing RQ2 and RQ3. A concerning negative correlation between income inequality and happiness is evident, addressing RQ4. These findings emphasize the urgent need for targeted interventions to mitigate these effects on the Indonesian populace’s well-being.

COVID-19 severity reduces happiness

The decrease in self-reported happiness among Indonesians amid the severity of the COVID-19 pandemic arises from various factors. First, increased vulnerability to COVID-19 elevates health apprehensions and anxiety, giving rise to concerns about the risk of infection for both oneself and loved ones. Consequently, this anxiety diminishes overall well-being (Cleofas and Oducado 2022 ; Demirbas and Kutlu 2021 ; van der Vegt and Kleinberg 2020 ). Second, provinces with higher COVID-19 cases face significant economic disruptions, including business closures, job losses, and reduced economic activity, resulting in financial stress, insecurity, and an overall happiness decline (Cheng et al. 2020 ; Greyling et al. 2021 ; Kuhn et al. 2020 ). Third, residents in heavily affected provinces may encounter challenges such as limited social support networks, reduced opportunities for social engagement, and feelings of loneliness or disconnection, significantly impacting their happiness levels (Lepinteur et al. 2022 ; Nguyen 2021 ). Lastly, the increased prevalence of anxiety, depression, or emotional distress among individuals in provinces with higher COVID-19 exposure further contributes to lower self-reported happiness levels (Iskandarsyah et al. 2022 ).

This study underscores the assessment of the COVID-19 pandemic’s impact on individuals’ happiness, specifically through a severity measure focusing on the number of affected individuals per 100,000 population. This choice differs from using time dummy variables, assigning 1 for 2021 survey data (during the pandemic) and 0 for 2017 survey data (pre-pandemic). The severity measure directly reflects the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the population, offering a tangible and quantifiable indicator of its scale within a region. This approach is especially appropriate given the considerable variation in pandemic severity across provinces in Indonesia. Nevertheless, we recognize that relying solely on the severity measure may oversimplify the complex dynamics of the pandemic’s impact. Furthermore, Bittmann, ( 2022a ) explores the functional relationship between the severity measure and self-reported happiness, considering alternatives such as linearity (as employed in this paper), quadratic, and others. This exploration opens up possibilities for future studies.

COVID-19 severity moderates gender-residence type association with happiness

The negative and statistically significant interaction terms between COVID-19 severity and gender (being female) indicate that the pandemic’s severity affects the relationship between gender and self-reported happiness. In periods of intensified pandemic severity, the conventional gender gap in happiness, where women usually report higher levels, is disturbed. The negative moderation implies that the pandemic has a more detrimental impact on women’s happiness levels than men.

Research conducted by Alon et al. ( 2020 ), Blanchflower and Bryson ( 2022 ), and Hansen et al. ( 2022 ) underscore that the decline in happiness levels among women can be attributed to heightened caregiving responsibilities, especially as primary caregivers for children. Transitioning to remote learning for children has introduced additional challenges and demands for women. Additionally, as frontline workers, women face elevated stress levels in their roles and are vulnerable to potential job layoffs and disruptions in their participation in the labor market. Conversely, a study by Choi et al. ( 2021 ) concluded that even before the onset of COVID-19, Korean women demonstrated lower levels of SWB compared to men. Therefore, the well-being disparities observed among Korean women are more likely rooted in pre-pandemic variations rather than directly caused by the effects of the pandemic.

Similarly, the adverse and statistically significant interaction terms between COVID-19 severity and residence type (urban) indicate that the severity of the pandemic influences the connection between living in urban areas and self-reported happiness. During periods of heightened pandemic severity, the typical gap in happiness based on residence type, where individuals in urban areas usually report higher levels, ceased to hold. This adverse moderation implies that the pandemic has a more harmful effect on the happiness levels of individuals in urban residences than those in rural areas.

Mayuzumi’s ( 2022 ) research provides valuable insights into the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the happiness of urban and rural communities in Bali, Indonesia. The results indicate that individuals in subsistence farming villages, heavily dependent on agriculture, witnessed minimal changes in their livelihoods, suggesting little impact from the pandemic. In contrast, urban residents, primarily reliant on tourism, experienced significant job losses and food accessibility challenges due to government curfews and economic stagnation. On the contrary, Nguyen ( 2021 ) introduces an alternative perspective by proposing that the pandemic has a more noticeable impact on the unhappiness levels of individuals residing in rural areas than those living in urban settings.

Inequality is a catalyst for diminishing happiness

Examining contextual characteristics unveils that, excluding the Java-Bali region, provincial poverty levels have negligible effects on happiness levels. Nonetheless, there is a discernible negative correlation between inequality in per capita expenditure and happiness.

An important observation from the analysis using region-specific breakdowns is the unexpected positive association between the Gini coefficient and happiness in the Sumatera region. The uniqueness of this result in Sumatera may be ascribed to distinct factors inherent to the region, such as particular social structures, values, or expectations. These regional peculiarities in Sumatra could influence individuals’ perspectives on happiness differently than in other locales. A more thorough investigation into the specific factors contributing to these anomalies across regions is necessary to grasp the patterns observed fully.

Study limitations

The research employed a single-question methodology using a 0–10 point Likert scale to assess individual happiness. Although this approach offers a valuable metric, we acknowledged that happiness is a complex concept with multiple dimensions that a single question may need to be more comprehensive. Consequently, the study recognizes the importance of incorporating additional aspects and nuances to understand better individuals’ well-being, including factors like self-evaluated life satisfaction, positive affect, and negative affect.

Moreover, it is essential to consider two significant data constraints when interpreting the findings. First, the SPTK datasets utilized in the study lack precise location information, restricting the analysis to the provincial level and hindering a more detailed examination of the impact of COVID-19 on specific regions or communities within a province. For instance, while information on the poverty rate is accessible at the district level, the unavailability of district codes necessitates using provincial poverty rates.

Second, the datasets do not incorporate information about the interview dates for respondents, which would have facilitated a more precise correlation with the daily severity rate of COVID-19 at the provincial level. Access to interview date information could have offered valuable insights into the temporal relationship between individuals’ experiences and the evolving severity of the pandemic in their respective provinces.

The global repercussions of COVID-19 on individuals’ lives and well-being are profound. In Indonesia, there is a pressing need for more research on the correlation between happiness and pandemic severity across the population. This study addresses this gap by examining the factors influencing happiness levels before and during the pandemic, specifically focusing on gender and residence type. By posing and answering four research questions (RQs), the study provides valuable insights into the intricate dynamics of happiness during the pandemic in Indonesia.

This study employed data from the 2017 and 2021 Happiness Level Measurement Survey (SPTK) to represent pre-pandemic and during-pandemic conditions, respectively. The data analysis involved using a multilevel mixed-effects ordered logistic model, with individuals nested within provinces as the analytical framework. The severity of the pandemic was proxied using the incidence of positive COVID-19 cases per 100,000 residents.

Our analysis underscores a statistically significant decline in self-reported happiness levels among Indonesians attributable to the severity of the COVID-19 pandemic, directly addressing RQ1. Notably, this severity measure has diminished the longstanding happiness advantage previously experienced by women and urban residents, aligning with the inquiries of RQ2 and RQ3. Additionally, our study highlights a negative correlation between income inequality and happiness, illuminating the intricate interplay of socioeconomic dynamics influencing individual well-being as per RQ4. The robust support for our research questions highlights the multifaceted impact of the pandemic on happiness levels in Indonesia.

Immediate policy interventions are required to tackle these findings, encompassing targeted mental health support to aid individuals in overcoming the challenges of lockdown restrictions and the loss of loved ones; economic assistance to support families facing sudden job loss and economic downturn; reinforced public health initiatives to curb the spread of the virus and mitigate the health impact of the pandemic; educational campaigns to inform the public about necessary health protocols; and community-based social support programs to lighten the overall burden faced by communities in dealing with the pandemic. These measures aim to alleviate the negative impact of the pandemic and socioeconomic disparities on the happiness and overall welfare of the Indonesian population.

In light of the adverse effects of COVID-19 on the happiness of women and urban residents, it is important to implement proactive government programs and policies. To address women’s heightened responsibilities, especially in home-based teaching, effective communication, and support between teachers and students, such as regular home visits, are essential. Providing physical visits and care for vulnerable populations, including the elderly, chronically ill, and disabled individuals, can help alleviate some of the burdens on women. Additionally, supporting urban residents involves reinforcing community associations, particularly within neighborhood and religious networks, through collaborative efforts between the Central Government and local administrations.

The future research agenda aims to enhance the comprehensiveness of this study by incorporating field visits that include in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. Validating the findings, gaining deeper insights into individual experiences amidst the challenges posed by COVID-19, and investigating the impact of government assistance are deemed crucial. Complementing the measurement of SWB by incorporating self-evaluated life satisfaction, positive affect, and negative affect will improve our knowledge of the well-being of Indonesians. Furthermore, expanding the study by incorporating subsequent SPTK data will allow for assessing happiness before, during, and after the pandemic.

Data availability

The primary datasets analyzed in this study, the Happiness Level Measurement Survey (SPTK) 2017 and 2021, are not accessible to the public. The author is contractually prohibited from granting access to the SPTK data, as specified in the agreement with the Badan Pusat Statistik (BPS). However, the datasets are available for purchase through the BPS ( https://www.bps.go.id/ ).

The BPS defines an urban area by its primary non-agricultural activities, a functional layout that accommodates urban settlements, and the concentration and distribution of government services, social services, and economic activities. In contrast, rural areas primarily involve agricultural activities, including managing natural resources, and have a functional arrangement that supports rural settlements, government services, social services, and economic activities. In 2022, the urban areas of Indonesia were home to 56.4 percent of the population, while 43.6 percent lived in rural areas.

The WHR, an annual report comparing happiness levels across countries, relies on three well-being indicators: life evaluation, positive affect, and negative affect (Helliwell et al. 2020 ). The Happiness Index, developed by the Central Statistics Agency of Indonesia (Badan Pusat Statistik; BPS), incorporates nineteen indicators that assess dimensions such as life satisfaction, affection, and the meaning of life ( eudaimonia ) (Badan Pusat Statistik 2021a ). It is important to acknowledge that these two measures evaluate distinct aspects. Hence, direct comparison between them is inappropriate, given their representation of separate entities.

These interaction terms capture the moderating effect of the severity of the COVID-19 pandemic on the relationships of interest.

The SPTK is cross-sectional and was conducted in 2012, 2013, 2014, 2017, and 2021. The SPTK has undergone conceptual and methodological improvements (Badan Pusat Statistik 2021a ). For comparability purposes, we will use the last two batches. We need to emphasize that the 2021 SPTK does not aim to study the pandemic’s effect on the happiness level.

Amid the COVID-19 pandemic, the 2021 SPTK data collection encountered many hurdles (Badan Pusat Statistik 2021a ). Originally scheduled for July 1–31, 2021, the fieldwork encountered setbacks due to local lockdowns and the emergence of the Delta variant. Consequently, the 2021 SPTK initiatives necessitated a two-phase extension, extending field activities to two months. Field enumerators grappled with significant challenges, especially in conducting face-to-face surveys amidst stringent health protocols. Setbacks were further compounded as certain respondents refrained from participation due to concerns about infection and the extent to which the virus infected some enumerators. Additionally, due to lockdown restrictions, some survey locations had to be substituted following a month-long delay.

This study includes 67,450 participants from the SPTK 2017 dataset and 70,508 from the SPTK 2021 dataset.

The ICC (Intra-Class Correlation) scale spans from 0 to 1. An ICC value of 0 signifies complete independence of residuals, indicating that the assessment of happiness by individuals does not differ across provinces. Conversely, an ICC value of 1 indicates perfect interdependence of residuals, suggesting that variations in individual happiness levels occur exclusively between provinces.

We also conducted a comparable analysis using the overall count of COVID-19-related deaths to indicate the pandemic’s severity. The results reflected similar patterns: Individuals residing in provinces with higher COVID-19 death tolls generally reported lower levels of happiness. Nevertheless, we opted to omit these findings from our report due to the intricacies associated with attributing a death specifically to COVID-19. Determining the precise cause of death poses challenges, as some individuals might have succumbed to the disease while others had concurrent comorbidities. Consequently, this indicator may be susceptible to inaccuracies, making it a relatively less reliable measure (Bittmann 2022a ).

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Acknowledgements

This study was supported by Grant No. NKB-1211/UN2.RST/HKP.05.00/2022 from the Publikasi Terindeks Internasional (PUTI) Q1, Directorate of Research and Development (Risbang), Universitas Indonesia. The author is grateful for the constructive inputs and discussions throughout the preparation of this study from Professor Masayuki Kanai from the School of Human Sciences, Senshu University, and Professor Iwan Gardono Sudjatmiko from the Department of Sociology, Universitas Indonesia. In addition, Peter Morley from the Australian Volunteers Indonesia assisted in shaping the report and editorial services.

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Pattinasarany, I.R.I. Happiness amidst the COVID-19 pandemic in Indonesia: exploring gender, residence type, and pandemic severity. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11 , 609 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-03131-0

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Why writing by hand beats typing for thinking and learning

Jonathan Lambert

If you're like many digitally savvy Americans, it has likely been a while since you've spent much time writing by hand.

The laborious process of tracing out our thoughts, letter by letter, on the page is becoming a relic of the past in our screen-dominated world, where text messages and thumb-typed grocery lists have replaced handwritten letters and sticky notes. Electronic keyboards offer obvious efficiency benefits that have undoubtedly boosted our productivity — imagine having to write all your emails longhand.

To keep up, many schools are introducing computers as early as preschool, meaning some kids may learn the basics of typing before writing by hand.

But giving up this slower, more tactile way of expressing ourselves may come at a significant cost, according to a growing body of research that's uncovering the surprising cognitive benefits of taking pen to paper, or even stylus to iPad — for both children and adults.

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In kids, studies show that tracing out ABCs, as opposed to typing them, leads to better and longer-lasting recognition and understanding of letters. Writing by hand also improves memory and recall of words, laying down the foundations of literacy and learning. In adults, taking notes by hand during a lecture, instead of typing, can lead to better conceptual understanding of material.

"There's actually some very important things going on during the embodied experience of writing by hand," says Ramesh Balasubramaniam , a neuroscientist at the University of California, Merced. "It has important cognitive benefits."

While those benefits have long been recognized by some (for instance, many authors, including Jennifer Egan and Neil Gaiman , draft their stories by hand to stoke creativity), scientists have only recently started investigating why writing by hand has these effects.

A slew of recent brain imaging research suggests handwriting's power stems from the relative complexity of the process and how it forces different brain systems to work together to reproduce the shapes of letters in our heads onto the page.

Your brain on handwriting

Both handwriting and typing involve moving our hands and fingers to create words on a page. But handwriting, it turns out, requires a lot more fine-tuned coordination between the motor and visual systems. This seems to more deeply engage the brain in ways that support learning.

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"Handwriting is probably among the most complex motor skills that the brain is capable of," says Marieke Longcamp , a cognitive neuroscientist at Aix-Marseille Université.

Gripping a pen nimbly enough to write is a complicated task, as it requires your brain to continuously monitor the pressure that each finger exerts on the pen. Then, your motor system has to delicately modify that pressure to re-create each letter of the words in your head on the page.

"Your fingers have to each do something different to produce a recognizable letter," says Sophia Vinci-Booher , an educational neuroscientist at Vanderbilt University. Adding to the complexity, your visual system must continuously process that letter as it's formed. With each stroke, your brain compares the unfolding script with mental models of the letters and words, making adjustments to fingers in real time to create the letters' shapes, says Vinci-Booher.

That's not true for typing.

To type "tap" your fingers don't have to trace out the form of the letters — they just make three relatively simple and uniform movements. In comparison, it takes a lot more brainpower, as well as cross-talk between brain areas, to write than type.

Recent brain imaging studies bolster this idea. A study published in January found that when students write by hand, brain areas involved in motor and visual information processing " sync up " with areas crucial to memory formation, firing at frequencies associated with learning.

"We don't see that [synchronized activity] in typewriting at all," says Audrey van der Meer , a psychologist and study co-author at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. She suggests that writing by hand is a neurobiologically richer process and that this richness may confer some cognitive benefits.

Other experts agree. "There seems to be something fundamental about engaging your body to produce these shapes," says Robert Wiley , a cognitive psychologist at the University of North Carolina, Greensboro. "It lets you make associations between your body and what you're seeing and hearing," he says, which might give the mind more footholds for accessing a given concept or idea.

Those extra footholds are especially important for learning in kids, but they may give adults a leg up too. Wiley and others worry that ditching handwriting for typing could have serious consequences for how we all learn and think.

What might be lost as handwriting wanes

The clearest consequence of screens and keyboards replacing pen and paper might be on kids' ability to learn the building blocks of literacy — letters.

"Letter recognition in early childhood is actually one of the best predictors of later reading and math attainment," says Vinci-Booher. Her work suggests the process of learning to write letters by hand is crucial for learning to read them.

"When kids write letters, they're just messy," she says. As kids practice writing "A," each iteration is different, and that variability helps solidify their conceptual understanding of the letter.

Research suggests kids learn to recognize letters better when seeing variable handwritten examples, compared with uniform typed examples.

This helps develop areas of the brain used during reading in older children and adults, Vinci-Booher found.

"This could be one of the ways that early experiences actually translate to long-term life outcomes," she says. "These visually demanding, fine motor actions bake in neural communication patterns that are really important for learning later on."

Ditching handwriting instruction could mean that those skills don't get developed as well, which could impair kids' ability to learn down the road.

"If young children are not receiving any handwriting training, which is very good brain stimulation, then their brains simply won't reach their full potential," says van der Meer. "It's scary to think of the potential consequences."

Many states are trying to avoid these risks by mandating cursive instruction. This year, California started requiring elementary school students to learn cursive , and similar bills are moving through state legislatures in several states, including Indiana, Kentucky, South Carolina and Wisconsin. (So far, evidence suggests that it's the writing by hand that matters, not whether it's print or cursive.)

Slowing down and processing information

For adults, one of the main benefits of writing by hand is that it simply forces us to slow down.

During a meeting or lecture, it's possible to type what you're hearing verbatim. But often, "you're not actually processing that information — you're just typing in the blind," says van der Meer. "If you take notes by hand, you can't write everything down," she says.

The relative slowness of the medium forces you to process the information, writing key words or phrases and using drawing or arrows to work through ideas, she says. "You make the information your own," she says, which helps it stick in the brain.

Such connections and integration are still possible when typing, but they need to be made more intentionally. And sometimes, efficiency wins out. "When you're writing a long essay, it's obviously much more practical to use a keyboard," says van der Meer.

Still, given our long history of using our hands to mark meaning in the world, some scientists worry about the more diffuse consequences of offloading our thinking to computers.

"We're foisting a lot of our knowledge, extending our cognition, to other devices, so it's only natural that we've started using these other agents to do our writing for us," says Balasubramaniam.

It's possible that this might free up our minds to do other kinds of hard thinking, he says. Or we might be sacrificing a fundamental process that's crucial for the kinds of immersive cognitive experiences that enable us to learn and think at our full potential.

Balasubramaniam stresses, however, that we don't have to ditch digital tools to harness the power of handwriting. So far, research suggests that scribbling with a stylus on a screen activates the same brain pathways as etching ink on paper. It's the movement that counts, he says, not its final form.

Jonathan Lambert is a Washington, D.C.-based freelance journalist who covers science, health and policy.

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