research paper topics on marine biology

77 Easy Marine Biology Research Topics

The marine habitat is a world of wonder, with more undiscovered mysteries than what we know. The curiosity born from these gaps in knowledge is enormous, so research is necessary to provide as much information as possible.

A sacrosanct part of this information is finding the right aquatic biology research topics to base your paper on. Whether you are a student, or looking to carry out research in the field of marine biology, having good marine biology research topics will be of immense help to you.

Interesting Marine Biology Research Topics to Explore

• How do bioluminescent animals produce their light?
• The adaptability of bioluminescent animals to their habitats
• The relationship between the clownfish and sea anemone
• How are pearls formed?
• The impact of plastic wastes in marine habitats
• Forms of pollution in marine environment
• The four classes of marine biology
• Effects of climate change in marine habitats
• Phytoplanktons in the food chain
• Immunity in fishes
• Disease tolerance in oysters
• The diversity of marine organisms
• Parasites of aquatic organisms
• Buoyancy in sharks
• The marine food chain
• Adaptation of aquatic organisms to salinity
• Adaptation of aquatic organisms to fresh water
• The current rise in sea levels, and the consequences
• Effects of underwater movement of tectonic plates on marine life
• Symbiotic relationships between marine animals
• Parasitic organisms that affect whales
• Adaptation of birds to marine environment
• Mutation in aquatic organisms due to chemical spills
• Effects of toxins in marine habitats
• Melting glaciers and its effects on marine life
• Causes of fish die-offs
• Bioremediation in deep waters
• Factors that contribute to changes in oceans
• Aestivation in African lungfish
• Factors that lead to depletion of oxygen in marine habitats
• Causes of acidification in oceans
• How greenhouse gasses affect marine life
• The toxicity of sea anemones
• Feeding and metabolism in starfishes
• Reasons for dying of coral reefs
• What whale migration says about their behaviour
• Reasons for migration in dolphins
• Food web in marine habitats
• The contribution of microorganisms in marine environment
• Behavioural adaptation of x-ray fishes to avoiding predators
• Diversity of marine plants
• Reproduction in marine animals
• Different sources of pollutants in marine environments
• Effects of nitrogen and phosphorus accumulation in marine environments
• Microplastics: small objects, big problems
• Migration of microplastic toxins along the food chain
• Ways of reducing the problem of plastic in marine habitats
• Marine dumping
• Conservation of coral reefs
• Control of water pollution
• Distinctive features of marine fishes
• Energy pyramids in marine environments
• Relationship between selected marine organisms
• Diversity of corals
• Effets of ocean acidification on clownfish
• Effects of ocean acidification on other marine forms
• Ways of minimising ocean acidification
• Formation and effects of marine snow
• Camouflage in octopuses
• Adaptation of squids to their habitat
• Reasons for migration in albatrosses
• Migration in zooplankton
• Adaptive features of marine plants
• The role of sargassum plays in marine habitats
• Sinking of marine waste products
• formation of calcium sediments
• protection of marine habitats
• Viral infections in primary producers of food in marine habitats
• Importance of calcium carbonate to marine organisms
• Relationship between climate change and ocean acidification
• Heat waves in marine habitats
• Impact of heat waves on marine life
• Causes of harmful algal blooms in marine habitats
• Relationship between ocean acidification and marine algal bloom
• Effects of depletion of oxygen in marine ecosystems
• Interaction between the atmosphere and marine habitats
• Oxygen distribution along ocean depths.

These marine biology research topics are an accumulation of matters, questions and dark areas of knowledge in aquatic biology research. Your paper will provide the much needed knowledge to know more about what marine ecosystems offer.

Any of the topics you choose, you can rest assured that they are unique, interesting, and very engaging, no matter the audience. They are also easy to write about, no matter your level.

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Marine Biology

International Journal on Life in Oceans and Coastal Waters

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Review article, 100 opportunities for more inclusive ocean research: cross-disciplinary research questions for sustainable ocean governance and management.

• 1 World Maritime University, Malmö, Sweden
• 2 National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, United States
• 3 Future Earth, School of Global Environmental Sustainability, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO, United States
• 4 Centre for Marine Socioecology and Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia
• 5 Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation Oceans and Atmosphere, Saint Lucia, QLD, Australia
• 6 Ministry of Science, Technology, and Innovations, Brasília, Brazil
• 7 National Institute of Aquatic Resources, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
• 8 School of the Environment, Geography and Geosciences Centre for Blue Governance, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, United Kingdom
• 9 UN Environment World Conservation Monitoring Centre, Cambridge, United Kingdom
• 10 Department of Environmental Sciences, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, United States

In order to inform decision making and policy, research to address sustainability challenges requires cross-disciplinary approaches that are co-created with a wide and inclusive diversity of disciplines and stakeholders. As the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development approaches, it is therefore timely to take stock of the global range of cross-disciplinary questions to inform the development of policies to restore and sustain ocean health. We synthesized questions from major science and policy horizon scanning exercises, identifying 89 questions with relevance for ocean policy and governance. We then scanned the broad ocean science literature to examine issues potentially missed in the horizon scans and supplemented the horizon scan outcome with 11 additional questions. This resulted in an unprioritized list of 100 general questions that would require a cross-disciplinary approach to inform policy. The questions fell into broad categories including: coastal and marine environmental change, managing ocean activities, governance for sustainable oceans, ocean value, and technological and socio-economic innovation. Each question can be customized by ecosystem, region, scale, and socio-political context, and is intended to inspire discussions of salient cross-disciplinary research directions to direct scientific research that will inform policies. Governance and management responses to these questions will best be informed by drawing upon a diversity of natural and social sciences, local and traditional knowledge, and engagement of different sectors and stakeholders.

Introduction

Creating and mobilizing new knowledge about the environmental and ecological status of the ocean, how the ocean is or could be used, and how it can be governed and managed is crucial, particularly given the important role that oceans play in supporting Earth’s life support systems, ‘blue growth’ ( European Commission, 2017 ), sustainable development, and the 2030 Agenda ( United Nations, 2017 ; Singh et al., 2018 ). One response to our relatively limited knowledge of ocean status and stressors is the creation of the United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development 2021–2030 ( Ryabinin et al., 2019 ), hereafter the “Ocean Decade,” with its dual goals of generating scientific knowledge and informing policies in support of the 2030 Agenda. One specific objective is to increase scientific knowledge to enhance uptake of ocean science knowledge at the science-policy interface, at global, regional and national levels ( Claudet et al., 2019 ).

Increasing the uptake and use of scientific evidence in the public, private, and non-profit sectors requires credible and salient evidence-based research that is aligned with the needs of decision-makers ( Hisschemöller and Hoppe, 1995 ; Cash et al., 2003 ; Sutherland et al., 2011 ). In the ocean science realm, examples of broad, policy-relevant questions that require scientific evidence might include: How do we as a society respond to sea level rise? How can we best address the individual and interactive effects of multiple ocean stressors (e.g., ocean acidification, marine heat waves, changes in circulation, pollution, harvesting)? How can we plan activities at sea to minimize their impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services? The answers to such questions will of course be context-dependent. The science required to address them can require years of research, fit-for-purpose modeling tools and monitoring of social-ecological systems and processes over a wide range of temporal and spatial scales ( Visbeck, 2018 ). Answering such complicated real-world challenges requires input from numerous branches of the natural and social sciences as well as insights from disciplines not usually considered in marine environmental science (e.g., law, public health, education, food security, systems analysis, communication, arts and humanities, etc.) in an inclusive, cross-disciplinary research approach ( Lang et al., 2012 ; Parsons et al., 2014 ; Rudd et al., 2018b ; Claudet et al., 2019 ). Cross-disciplinary research can be interdisciplinary or transdisciplinary. These approaches differ in the way collaborators integrate knowledge and methods to develop and meet shared research goals to achieve a real synthesis of approaches ( Kelly et al., 2019 ). In interdisciplinary approaches, different academic research disciplines work together without non-academic collaborators, whereas in transdisciplinary approaches, different academic disciplines and non-academic collaborators work together ( Kelly et al., 2019 ).

Scientists and policy-makers alike recognize the effort and resources required to gather appropriate data and develop capacity for delivering such evidence. However, due to the rapid pace of change in ocean environments as well as policy priorities, there is often a great pressure to address these questions within a very narrow timeframe and with a paucity of data. In anticipation of these requests and to help align scientific effort with policy needs, a number of scientific societies and research teams have performed foresight exercises (henceforth ‘horizon scanning’) to identify policy-salient research questions and develop insights about new issues on the horizon that may emerge and require attention from scientists and policy-makers.

Horizon scanning exercises have ranged in focus from issues of importance at local, national, sub-regional scales to those at international scales. Research identification and prioritization exercises have traditionally been ‘top–down’ affairs, with selected consultation from invited representatives from the scientific community (invited experts see e.g., Friedman et al., 2020 ) and private sector organizations ( National Research Council et al., 2015 ; Holthus, 2018 ; Boero et al., 2019 ). However, the past decade has seen an increased use of ‘bottom-up’ horizon scanning approaches that draw on the collective expertise of thousands of scientists, policy-makers, and practitioners. Examples of bottom up approaches include those that are ocean-focused (e.g., Fissel et al., 2012 ; Rees et al., 2013 ; Parsons et al., 2014 ), deal with broader topics that have ocean-focused components (e.g., Fleishman et al., 2011 ; Ingram et al., 2013 ; Rudd et al., 2018b ), or address terrestrial questions that also have, with some modification, applicability in the marine and coastal domain (e.g., Mihók et al., 2015 ).

Various horizon scanning exercises yield overlapping questions, though differences can naturally arise that have been attributed to region, scale, focal ecosystem, or scientific discipline. There can also be differences that may reflect the degree of involvement of various sectors, such as academia, industry, non-governmental organizations, and government ( Rudd and Fleishman, 2014 ; Van den Brink et al., 2018 ).

As the Ocean Decade approaches, we find it timely to take a broad global inventory of the thousands of salient governance and management topics and questions that have emerged over recent years from the diversity of top–down and bottom–up sub-regional to international horizon scanning exercises. For this paper we identified policy-relevant and cross-disciplinary ocean science questions through a systematic screening of diverse horizon scanning exercises. To supplement the horizon scan review and ensure that no major themes were missed, we also examined 400,000 ocean science abstracts (1997–2017). Although many of the topics and questions identified by each horizon scanning exercise are specific to the context in which they were framed (thereby reflecting the habitats, ecosystems, threats and issues identified by the specific horizon scanning effort), many general themes are shared across different contexts.

To make the questions transferable to other contexts and to facilitate broader discussions, we consolidated and generalized the questions to reflect common themes. The result is an unprioritized list of generalized research questions that can be customized and be applied to specific scales, ecosystems, and socio-political contexts.

The horizon scanning exercises engaged thousands of scientists and academics, and representatives from non-governmental organizations, government agencies, and the private sector. In the cases we used, almost all represent the outputs from structured processes to consider emerging environmental challenges. Our endeavor synthesizes those immense efforts. Harvesting research questions and topics from a diversity of horizon scanning exercises and articles is an important first step in helping the scientific community to more quickly overview the emerging range of challenges across regions, ecosystems, and scales. The questions identified in our study will optimistically inspire discussion across sectors and further investigation within public and private research institutions, academic institutions, NGOs, and industry.

We used a three-part strategy to identify important ocean policy research questions for inclusion in our synthesis. First we reviewed the horizon scanning literature to identify research questions and topics relevant for ocean governance and management. Second, to help ensure there were not any major gaps in the horizon scanning literature, we conducted a relatively simple text analysis of the recent (1997–2017) ocean science literature. Finally, we formulated the topics into general policy-salient research questions using a structured question syntax (described below).

Identifying Important Research Questions From the Horizon Scanning Literature (Part 1)

First, we identified important research questions from the horizon scanning literature. To identify important research questions we assembled a corpus of peer reviewed articles and reports from the gray literature that reported on science-to-policy question-generating exercises (e.g., ‘big question’ workshops, working group syntheses), and on topic-oriented horizon scans of emerging science-policy issues ( Table 1 ). To ensure full coverage of potentially important research questions we also reviewed a small set of structured reviews and survey research that was based primarily on prior horizon scan research questions.

Table 1. Horizon scanning literature used to generate 89 of the science-policy questions presented in this paper (as described in part 1 of our Methods).

This is a relatively small literature, so a formal search strategy was not needed: we simply checked all citing articles for several key horizon scanning references (e.g., starting with e.g., Sutherland et al., 2009 , 2011 ), examining each of those for content and any further horizon scanning literature they cited, and for our summary included studies that had identified research questions or topic with potential ocean relevance (even if they were terrestrially oriented studies but which covered general governance and management topic that would be equally applicable in the marine realm).

We coded and grouped questions from the question generating and horizon scanning exercises that addressed similar research topics. We then re-worded and re-combined questions so as to reflect common issues identified in these exercises. This resulted in 89 research questions that cut across a number of different themes.

Identifying Research Topics That the Horizon Scans May Not Have Highlighted (Part 2)

Secondly, to supplement our review of the horizon scanning results and identify any potential gaps in important research topics that the horizon scans may have missed (or not prioritized sufficiently highly to include in their final question lists), we conducted our own expanded scan for research topics among the last 20-years of ocean and coastal article abstracts ( n = 400,000) from ISI-listed journals. We downloaded to Endnote all abstracts for all articles returned in a search with keywords ocean ∗ , coastal, or marine; while the search terms were excessively broad, we did not want to miss any potentially relevant literature by unduly constraining our initial search. We were therefore likely to capture, as a subset of our search, the ocean science and management literature included in the ISI core collection.

Once downloaded, we used the QDA Miner/Wordstat software package 1 to identify and group phrases of 2–5 words each that were potentially indicative of ocean science and management topics. Phrases were then aggregated (by MAR) into categories and themes, coarser groupings that served as potential research topics to be compared against research themes and topics identified in the horizon scanning study review. In total, we identified 138 categories of research over the past 20-years that could be relevant for policy-oriented research. These included 23 categories characterizing ocean systems, 77 characterizing threats to oceans, and 48 characterizing potential societal responses to threats.

Research topics identified in the abstract scan were then compared with those identified through the horizon scanning exercises. This was necessarily a subjective exercise but in the end we decided to include 11 additional research topics in our final list (areas we thought may not have received sufficient attention in the horizon scans), bringing our question list to an even 100. Our final list comprised 100 non-prioritized cross-disciplinary research questions listed below.

Formulating Research Questions (Part 3)

All of the research topics that we identified from both the review of the horizon scanning exercises and the published ocean science literature were formulated into policy-salient research questions. In their original form, the syntax of each research question varied substantially. In an effort to reduce jargon and state questions in plain English and a consistent manner, we identified and removed the following components from each question:

• explicitly stated contextual qualifiers

• specifically identified decision-makers

• evaluative criteria and/or precise objectives.

Each of our 100 questions can be fine-tuned for practical use by readers by expanding them as follows:

Given the perceived threat or opportunity facing our target human (or natural) constituency [e.g., citizens, stakeholders, businesses, endangered species, habitat, etc…] in our region over the relevant planning time horizon , how can we [e.g., consumers, citizens, households, firms, agencies, managers, etc…] as decision-makers best [e.g., effectively, efficiently, fairly, sustainably, minimize risks from, maximize benefits from, etc…] intervene [e.g., shape behavior, craft rules, mitigate impact, invest in human or technical capacity, fund science, etc…] so as to address our ocean challenge and achieve our objectives regarding quality of life [e.g., environment, people, communities, culture, technological development, wealth generation] and/or governance processes [e.g., transparency, participation, professionalism, equity, etc…]?

For example, one question from the synthesis was “How best can ocean de-oxygenation be addressed?” For a specific context, it may be that the generic question could incorporate context-relevant details and be stated specifically as: “Given ocean de-oxygenation may over the next decade stress and reduce fish populations in local coastal waters, and that those changes could adversely affect the livelihoods of local fishers, how can coastal planners effectively reduce the effects of other land-based stressors of coastal ecosystems so as to minimize the risk of damaging the coastal economy and the vitality of coastal communities?”

By treating the questions in this way it should be possible for researchers or policy-makers working in specific contexts to translate generic questions of potential use in their situation into a very context-specific and policy-salient cross-disciplinary research question.

In this section we categorized the 100 non-prioritized questions into five broad themes: coastal and marine environmental change, managing ocean activities, governance for sustainable oceans, ocean value, and technological and socio-economic innovation.

Coastal and Marine Environmental Change

Coastal areas, which have attracted human development and settlement throughout history ( Nielsen et al., 2017 ), are increasingly exposed to new combinations of pressures as human populations continue to grow and increase the use of coastal areas ( Halpern et al., 2015 ; Jouffray et al., 2020 ). With increased and intensified use, marine environments are undergoing rapid change due to the combined effects of climate change (such as ocean warming, ocean acidification, sea level rise, and extreme events), land-based uses (such as pollution from effluence and agricultural runoff), extractive ocean uses (such as the harvest of living and non-living resources), transport (shipping, tourism, coastal runways), energy production, land reclamation, cabling for communications ( Halpern et al., 2008b ), and other human activities. These activities result in habitat degradation and loss, and rapid changes in environmental conditions. Managing these threats and impacts will require management and governance solutions from local to international scales ( Bennett, 2018 ; Gissi et al., 2018 ; Pinsky et al., 2018 ).

Climate Change

Climate change due to increased greenhouse gas concentrations from anthropogenic sources is leading to increased ocean and atmospheric temperatures ( Pachauri et al., 2014 ), ocean acidification ( Doney et al., 2012 ), increased frequency and severity of extreme weather events ( Stott, 2016 ), marine heat waves ( Smale et al., 2019 ), sea level rise ( Nicholls and Cazenave, 2010 ), and alterations to oceanic circulation ( Caesar et al., 2018 ). Many ecosystems are unable to keep pace with the unprecedented speed of change ( Doney et al., 2012 ). These impacts will influence food webs and the distribution and abundance of marine organisms ( Poloczanska et al., 2016 ), will likely affect ecosystem structure and function, and the distribution of marine resources and habitats ( Hoegh-Guldberg and Bruno, 2010 ; Cheung et al., 2013 ; Pecl et al., 2017 ), with profound implications for the societies that depend on them ( Reid et al., 2014 ; Weatherdon et al., 2016 ).

Climate change questions resulting from our scan include:

(1) How can we best minimize the risks arising from ocean warming and marine heat waves in different ocean ecosystems?

(2) How can we best respond to sea-level rise?

(3) How can we respond to adverse effects of species on the move in response to climate change?

(4) How can we best address harmful biophysical, social and economic effects of ocean acidification?

(5) How can we best address the effects of climate change on primary production in the ocean?

(6) How can we identify and minimize the risks arising from disruption or collapse of thermohaline circulation patterns?

Terrestrial Drivers of Environmental Quality in the Ocean

Terrestrial activities such as land use and waste disposal practices have long been recognized as responsible for a diverse range of adverse effects in coastal and marine environments ( Nixon, 1995 ; Rabalais, 2002 ; Howarth et al., 2011 ). Poorly managed agricultural, forestry, mining, and waste management practices release sediment ( Syvitski et al., 2005 ), chemicals, and nutrients ( Howarth et al., 2011 ), which can smother or poison coastal habitats and species ( Shahidul Islam and Tanaka, 2004 ; Kroon et al., 2016 ). Plastic debris from land-based sources can be consumed by marine organisms causing injury and/or death ( Kershaw and Rochman, 2015 ; Li et al., 2016 ; Kershaw et al., 2017 ;) and potentially facilitate the transport of toxins to organisms ( Anbumani and Kakkar, 2018 ). Pollution from land-based sources can lead to various impacts on the marine environment ranging from habitat degradation, the alteration of primary productivity and food web structure, changes to ocean chemistry (such as anoxia), as well as affecting biodiversity which is vital to ecosystem structure and function ( Shahidul Islam and Tanaka, 2004 ; Halpern et al., 2008b ). This reduces the resilience of coastal ecosystems and undermines the long-term economic and food security of the people that depend on the affected areas ( Worm et al., 2006 ; Halpern et al., 2009 ). Key questions include:

(7) How can we minimize adverse effects of nutrients and contaminants entering, or being remobilized in the marine environment?

(8) How best can ocean de-oxygenation be addressed?

(9) How can we minimize risks to human and environmental health arising from harmful algal blooms?

(10) How best can we identify and implement solutions to reduce plastics in the ocean?

(11) How can the effects arising from terrestrial environmental change be buffered so as to minimize their adverse marine impacts?

(12) How can we minimize adverse effects arising from human migration into or away from coastal areas?

Biodiversity Loss, Range Alteration

Ocean biodiversity supports many of the ocean industries, activities and services relied upon by society ( Martin et al., 2015 ; Barbier, 2017 ; United Nations et al., 2017 ; Barbier et al., 2018 ) yet is vulnerable to global environmental change from large-scale impacts such as climate change and changes in ocean chemistry, as well as more localized changes such as habitat modification or disturbance ( Worm et al., 2006 ; Bongaarts, 2019 ). Cumulatively, these changes reduce the resilience of ocean ecosystems and produce noticeable changes in species behavior (e.g., migration, reproduction) and habitat formation ( Bongaarts, 2019 ). Indigenous and Traditional Peoples make up around 5% of the global population, yet are in charge of lands that account for over 40 percent of the world’s biodiversity ( Garnett et al., 2018 ), therefore Indigenous and Traditional Peoples’ roles in conservation for biodiversity in the context of climate change will need to be a part of the solutions moving into the future.

Key questions include:

(13) How best can we facilitate migration and adaptation for biodiversity threatened by changing ocean conditions?

(14) How can we minimize adverse effects arising from the transfer and spread of marine invasive species?

(15) How, and when, can we best use triage approaches to manage marine species at risk?

Marine Hazards and Coastal Risks

Coastal areas attract human settlement and industries, and are experiencing rapid development ( Barragán and de Andrés, 2015 ; Neumann et al., 2015 ). The development and intensification of human activities in coastal areas, such as land reclamation, and the conversion of habitats to support economic activities (e.g., aquaculture, port expansion, and human settlement) has resulted in the loss of buffering habitats that reduce wave action during storms, exposing coasts to increased risks of erosion and flooding ( Neumann et al., 2015 ). Loss of habitats such as sand dunes, mangroves, seagrass beds, and coral reefs have been estimated to leave as many as 100–300 million people at increased risk of floods and hurricanes ( Bridgewater et al., 2019 ). Populations living near coastal areas are projected to grow, which will expose increasing numbers to sea level rise and associated coastal risks ( Neumann et al., 2015 ). There is increasing urgency to extend studies of human safety at sea and in the coastal zone, such as marine accident prevention, response, and occupational safety ( Lubchenco et al., 2012 ; Luo and Shin, 2019 ; Watterson et al., 2020 ) as well as emergency management of coastal natural hazards (e.g., Jin and Lin, 2011 ).

(16) How can we best prepare for changes in patterns of extreme weather events?

(17) How can we minimize the risks that marine hazards pose to coastal communities and economies?

Data and Monitoring

To inform sustainable management of the use of our oceans and coasts, vast amounts of ocean data are needed to understand and predict how marine ecosystems will respond to the rapid increase of global change ( Pereira et al., 2010 ). Environmental and socio-economic data are needed for indicators, models, mapping efforts, and risk assessments that can inform decisions ( Evans et al., 2019 ). Furthermore given the magnitude of existing and emerging data and ‘Big Data,’ new approaches for interpreting and synthesizing these data is critically lacking ( Reichstein et al., 2019 ). International standards for long term monitoring programs, observing systems, data collection and quality, open access data repositories are needed ( deYoung et al., 2019 ), with inclusion of data sovereignty requirements for Indigenous and Traditional Peoples ( Sobrevila, 2008 ). Efforts have been in place to coordinate ocean observations within the framework of the Essential Ocean Variables (EOVs), a set of agreed minimum variables that need to be measured in a standardized fashion, so that data are comparable and easily delivered to end-users ( Miloslavich et al., 2018 ). In addition, capacity-building and stakeholder engagement efforts, such as collaboration with communities, citizen scientists, and industrial sectors, governmental and international organizations will be needed to fill in data gaps ( Kaiser et al., 2019 ). The connectivity and dynamics of ocean processes in space and time remain poorly understood, and typical data and/or capacity gaps can exist that challenge data collection, especially in areas that are remote, difficult to sample, and or face particularly rapid increase in human activities (e.g., coastal areas, the deep sea, and Arctic) ( Halpern et al., 2015 ; Menegotto and Rangel, 2018 ). The benefits of policies and practices that incentivize and regulate the sharing and dissemination of data are receiving increased attention ( Claudet et al., 2019 ; Evans et al., 2019 ; Weller et al., 2019 ). Environmental and socio-economic data are essential for decision making, and cross-disciplinary collaboration is required to design and prioritize data collection and monitoring ( Claudet et al., 2019 ; deYoung et al., 2019 ; Evans et al., 2019 ; Kaiser et al., 2019 ).

(18) How can we best ensure that core earth systems are maintained within acceptable boundaries?

(19) How can we best deliver comparable ocean data and data products for assessment of long-term, incremental, and cumulative effects of multiple stressors in the marine environment?

(20) How can we maximize the usefulness, value and accessibility of information provided by monitoring of key oceanographic, ecological, economic, and social variables?

Managing Ocean Activities

In addition to understanding and mitigating the drivers of ocean change, there is a need to balance negative effects arising from humans’ use of the oceans with the benefits that humans derive from oceans ( Gattuso et al., 2018 ). The questions in this section address sector-specific activities that extract or use coastal and marine natural resources. There are many considerations and the cumulative effects of current and potential multiple stressors is an important consideration ( Clarke Murray et al., 2015 ). Processes such as marine spatial planning are key to coordinate existing and emerging ocean activities, since activities can have competing or complementary uses ( Domínguez-Tejo et al., 2016 ).

Global wild fisheries catch was 79.3 million tons in 2016, and remains an essential source of animal protein for millions of people, especially in developing countries and small island developing states ( Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2020 ). Currently over 33% of fish stocks are considered full or over exploited ( Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2020 ) and over 55% of the ocean’s area is fished ( Kroodsma et al., 2018 ). Although the ecosystem impacts of fishing are scientifically well documented, fisheries management rarely use ecosystem descriptors to set fisheries management targets ( Skern-Mauritzen et al., 2016 ). Hence, ecosystem-based approaches to management are not institutionalized in fisheries governance ( Patrick and Link, 2015 ). Further a major challenge for managing fish stocks is illegal, unreported and unregulated - IUU fishing which is increasingly recognized and intensifying ( Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2020 ). Many IUU activities are extending further offshore to exploit deeper waters. Furthermore destructive fishing practices (e.g., bottom trawling, harvesting immature fish, discarding non-target species) continue to exacerbate increased fishing pressure on dwindling fish stocks in many parts of the World ( Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2020 ). Climate change is impacting on the distribution and dynamics of fish populations at various life stages, such as impacts to important life stage habitats such as nursery and spawning areas. Information on the locations and impacts of human activities including climate change on these habitats are lacking, leaving ecosystems that support fisheries vulnerable to habitat loss and blue growth activities ( Sundblad et al., 2014 ; Pecl et al., 2017 ). Implementation of science based management plans as well as the end of subsidies that contribute to overcapacity and overfishing are essential ( UN Economic and Social Council [ECOSOC], 2019 ). Finally, complex regulatory regimes and social norms will continue to be important considerations in controlling fisheries pressure in some areas ( Gutiérrez et al., 2011 ), especially where they present challenges to the implementation of scientific advice.

(21) How can we sustainably manage fisheries to account for the ecosystem impacts of fishing, climate change and the connectivity of life stages of targeted and non-targeted species, and the dynamics of changing habitats and marine ecosystems?

(22) How can IUU fishing be reduced or eliminated?

(23) How can we best eliminate harmful subsidies in fisheries?

(24) How can rapid technological advance in fishing be effectively governed and managed?

Aquaculture

With the decline in wild fish stocks, and the increasing demand for animal protein to feed the growing global population, the world aquaculture production has overtaken wild capture fish stocks, and in 2016 accounted for 53 percent of the 171 million tons of fish production ( Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2020 ). The top producing aquacultural countries are among some of the largest and/or poorest, highlighting the importance of aquaculture for global food security ( Duarte et al., 2009 ; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2020 ). Environmental challenges of aquaculture range from impacts to water quality, introduction of non-native fish and pathogens from facilities, interactions with predators, habitat destruction or loss to provide space for aquaculture, introduction of contaminants (e.g., antifoulants, copper, antibiotics) and increased nutrient loads ( Holmer et al., 2007 ; Diana, 2009 ). The scale of the impacts is expected to expand with the emergence of larger facilities being built offshore and as the number of inshore coastal facilities increase and interact with other pressures from ocean use ( Gentry et al., 2017 ). Thus, a challenge for aquaculture will be to develop environmentally sustainable operations that are also economically viable ( Gentry et al., 2017 ) such as the research regarding the integrated multi trophic aquaculture ( Troell et al., 2009 ).

(25) How can adverse environmental effects from intensive aquaculture best be alleviated?

(26) How best can aquaculture be used as a tool to improve marine environmental quality?

(27) How best can aquaculture help address the food needs of rapidly growing populations?

(28) How best can we develop and capture multiple benefits from aquaculture for new ‘crops’ (e.g., diatoms, nutraceuticals)?

Marine Tourism

Marine tourism is a rapidly expanding sector, and the long-term sustainability of this industry depends on the management of its impact, and the conservation and societal benefits of tourism activities. Environmental impacts may include (but are not limited to) those arising from tourism’s carbon emissions ( Lenzen et al., 2018 ), wildlife behavioral changes caused by attracting wildlife for viewing through, e.g., feeding or baiting ( Burgin and Hardiman, 2015 ), the extraction of organisms (harvest, collection, fishing, etc.), the habitat conversion for the construction of resorts ( Bishop et al., 2017 ), other effects such as direct damage (e.g., trampling marine vegetation or breaking of coral reefs) and pollution ( Trave et al., 2017 ). The interdisciplinary question we identified that is relevant to this sub-topic was:

(29) How can we best manage marine and coastal tourism to capture economic benefits while ensuring environmental and social sustainability?

Offshore Mineral and Metal Extraction

Offshore seabeds are a source of mineral and metal deposits, such as those found at deep sea vents, and technological developments and interest in the extraction of these resources is increasing ( Van Dover, 2011 ). Deep sea mining can introduce a large number of environmental risks, especially as most sea beds are pristine habitats that are sensitive to disturbance ( Van Dover, 2011 ; Thornborough et al., 2019 ; Washburn et al., 2019 ). Many of the areas of interest for extraction are beyond national jurisdiction, so special measures are needed to assure environmental sustainability ( Van Dover, 2011 ; Mengerink et al., 2014 ) and sharing of benefits from global resources ( Jaeckel et al., 2016 ).

(30) How best can we make decisions about when, where, and how to find, extract, and transport offshore resources?

(31) How can we manage and mitigate adverse environmental effects of deep sea mining?

(32) How best can we ensure equitable benefit sharing from extractive industries operating in international waters?

Renewable Energy

Renewable energy technologies, coupled with enhanced energy efficiency, are an essential part of climate change mitigation efforts worldwide ( Edenhofer et al., 2011 ; Sathaye et al., 2011 ). Since the ocean provides vast supplies of potential energy in the form of wind, waves, tides, and thermal gradients, marine renewables are increasingly being considered as an important way to expand alternative energy portfolios ( Thresher and Musial, 2010 ). Yet, the potential ecological consequences of marine renewable energy installations can include impacts to the sensory ecology and physiology of marine animals from construction noise, collision risks for birds and bats, along with habitat loss ( Pezy et al., 2018 ). The degree of sensitivity of some taxa may change over time ( Best and Halpin, 2019 ). Some of the potential benefits of marine renewable energy installations include increasing biodiversity by acting as artificial reefs and fish aggregating devices ( Bishop et al., 2017 ). Though the literature is emerging, there remains an urgent need for studies addressing the environmental effects of marine renewable technologies ( Boehlert and Gill, 2010 ; Adams et al., 2014 ; Bailey et al., 2014 ; Russell et al., 2014 ).

A key question includes:

(33) How can we best develop and deliver ocean-based renewable energy to society with minimal harm to the ocean environment?

The global shipping network transports 90% of global trade, and contributes to roughly 3 percent of greenhouse gas emissions (approximately that of Germany) ( Olmer et al., 2017 ). The shipping sector is undergoing rapid expansion and change due to its importance in international trade and in part due to the opening of new high latitude shipping routes with climate change ( Ng et al., 2018 ). This expansion is promoting an increase in the size and number of ports, shipping lanes, and vessels ( Tournadre, 2014 ). The construction and expansion of new ports and associated infrastructure is associated with habitat loss in coastal areas ( Dafforn et al., 2015 ). The increased traffic, new routes and new ports increases the risk of spread of invasive species and pathogens via ballast water and through biofouling ( Seebens et al., 2016 ). The expansion of the shipping sector (and maritime transport and tourism such as that involving cruise ships, Ytreberg et al., 2020 ) has likewise exacerbated the risk for the release of pollutants (e.g., sulfates, nitrates, and anti-fouling paints), black carbon, and nutrients from gray water and sewage ( Jägerbrand et al., 2019 ). The increased number, size, and speed of ships raises the risk for e.g., collisions with marine mammals ( Cates et al., 2017 ), underwater noise ( Putland et al., 2018 ), oil spills ( Chang et al., 2014 ), and anchor scouring ( Davis et al., 2016 ). Ship breaking and recycling can release high local levels of pollutants such asbestos, heavy metals, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and plastics ( Barua et al., 2018 ) in the local environment.

(34) How best can we reduce the exposure of aquatic species to the diversity of threats from the expanding shipping sector?

(35) How can new technologies help to decrease greenhouse gas and other emissions in the shipping sector?

Cumulative Impacts

The oceans are experiencing unprecedented growth in the number and intensity of stressors ( Halpern et al., 2008b ) from climate change and human activities, any of which can interact antagonistically or synergistically ( Crain et al., 2008 ; Halpern et al., 2008a ; Giakoumi et al., 2015 ; Alava et al., 2017 ). There is deep uncertainty about the impacts of these cumulative, interacting stressors, and also the unprecedented speed in which they appear and combine ( Halpern et al., 2015 ). Understanding potential impacts of these interactions across all components of the ecosystem in a state of rapid change requires detailed monitoring, modeling and prediction of the marine environments in order to inform how ecosystem based management of biodiversity and resources may be affected. EIA tools and area based management instruments (e.g., zoning) and the regulation of human activities in time and space will be more effective if they can address the management of the growing number of cumulative effects ( Clarke Murray et al., 2015 ).

(36) How can we best address the individual and interactive effects of multiple ocean stressors?

(37) In the face of multiple ocean and upland stressors, how can we best ensure the long-term sustainability of marine habitats and the ecosystem services they provide?

Governance for Sustainable Oceans

Oceans governance arrangements and processes are the means through which societies align the interests of citizens and organizations with the goals and objectives of society as a whole ( Campbell et al., 2016 ) and through which decisions about oceans and marine resources uses are made, risks are addressed, and benefits, costs and trade-offs are negotiated ( Patterson et al., 2017 ). We define governance as the network of enduring institutional rules, practices, norms and relationships that connect the range of actors that influence and have a stake in the shared activity ( Rhodes, 2007 ) – in this case the use of the oceans. Oceans pose special governance challenges because of (1) the difficulties in observing and inventorying the ocean environment and resources ( Kaiser et al., 2019 ), (2) the mobility of many important ocean resources ( Pinsky et al., 2018 ), (3) incomplete or uncertain institutional arrangements for ocean governance ( Rudd, 2015 ), and (4) the long lag periods between the introduction of some pressures (e.g., current carbon emissions, increased anthropogenic nutrient loads to the sea, etc.), and their ultimate impact on ocean conditions ( Schleussner et al., 2016 ). In the context of ocean sustainability, the research questions from our synthesis deal with the types of tools that can be used to effectively manage ocean use as well as broader questions relating to the appropriate role of, and strategies for, ocean governance.

Management Tools and Strategies

At the operational level, management tools and strategies are used to help achieve governance objectives. In the coastal and ocean context, there is a diversity of management options to consider. These include, for example, direct investment options, incentives, formal regulations, and ways to help shape the preferences and norms of individuals and businesses, and it is important to consider the full range of potential intervention options ( Pretty, 2003 ; Link et al., 2018 ; United Nations Environment Programme, 2019 ). Despite the widespread scientific research highlighting the advantages of integrated and ecosystem based approaches to management (EBM) ( Link and Browman, 2017 ), there is a general lack of political will ( Link et al., 2018 ) and institutional barriers to implementing EBM in most jurisdictions remain ( Rudd et al., 2018a ). Only a limited number of governance entities, countries and organizations have committed to implementing EBM, and many questions remain on how to accelerate and implement EBM approaches ( Rudd et al., 2018a ). Modeling approaches, such as Integrative Ecosystem Assessment ( Levin et al., 2009 ) and risk assessments ( Haasnoot et al., 2013 ), can play a role in assessing tradeoffs and potential outcomes of policy decisions that aim to address the diversity and dynamics of interacting ecosystem components and pressures within and across jurisdictions.

(38) What are the advantages and disadvantages of spatial intensification of coastal industries?

(39) How can insights and prescriptions from different management paradigms (e.g., MSY, blue growth, ecosystem-based, etc.) be used synergistically to improve ocean sustainability?

(40) What are the economic costs and benefits of adopting an ecosystem approach to ocean management?

(41) What policy, legal, or institutional arrangements can best facilitate integrated management of coastal and ocean environments from land to sea?

Governance Strategies

How governance entities negotiate and implement the rules that govern ocean use have important implications for sustainability both nationally and internationally. Governance approaches depend on constitutional arrangements, cultural contexts, and governments’ discourses and political preferences for the types of management approaches and tools they use ( Tompkins et al., 2008 ; Lotze et al., 2018 ). How governments choose governance strategies and specific ways in which policy instruments are advocated and selected is poorly understood and under-researched ( Gluckman, 2016 ; Hutchings and Stenseth, 2016 ) and, in the context of ocean governance largely remains a black box. The interconnectedness of oceans and marine resources means that national and sectoral approaches must give way to integrated approaches and the interlinkages between managing jurisdictional waters and global oceans impacts required further research ( Vogler, 2012 ). In addition, in many contexts, civil society opinions, stakeholder advocacy, and the need to address multiple use conflicts are giving rise to participatory mechanisms to govern marine spaces equitably ( Lotze et al., 2018 ; Reynolds et al., 2020 ). Given the uncertainty of changes to oceans and marine ecosystems, governance arrangements must incorporate adaptive capacity to enable societies to prepare, respond and adapt to changing oceans ecosystem services ( Folke et al., 2005 ). While general strategies for good governance are known ( Ostrom, 2012 ), differences in governance style within agencies and between jurisdictions means that coordination and cooperation can be extremely challenging. Furthermore, current political trends toward increased nationalism and isolation may further hinder efforts to cooperate at the scale needed for effective ocean governance ( Link et al., 2018 ; Rudd et al., 2018a ).

(42) How can we manage the environmental, social, and cultural risks of climate change and the impacts of human activities on the oceans and coasts?

(43) How best can a shift in governance focus from national sovereignty to global ocean governance maximize social, political, and economic returns?

(44) What are the relative advantages and disadvantages of top–down, bottom–up, property rights, and market-oriented strategies for ocean governance?

(45) How best can societies come to agreement and take actions when there are differences in opinions regarding the salience of threats to ocean sustainability?

(46) How do governance systems with different values, institutions, and capacities choose and implement measures that contribute to ocean sustainability?

(47) How can governments best decide how to prioritize trade-offs between environmental, social, and economic effects of ocean use?

Decision Support

Evidence from natural and social sciences is complex and must be distilled to highlight core insights so that it can be used by decision-makers, and to improve transparency and accountability in decision making ( Fulton et al., 2011 ). Decision support tools involve combinations of models and assessment methods, and can be used to estimate the potential outcomes of management options based on available data and scenarios ( Guisan et al., 2013 ). Such tools can help decision makers to envision alternative futures for oceans ( Pinsky et al., 2018 ). They can provide insight about the capacity of particular types of management interventions to achieve particular governance objectives, and to assess the degree of relative risk a management option may entail ( Guerry et al., 2012 ; Österblom et al., 2013 ). They play a crucial role in identifying pathways to ocean sustainability and for monitoring progress along those pathways. To reduce uncertainty, scenarios should be developed through the inclusion of a diversity of stakeholders including, for example, natural and social scientists, planners, industry, governance actors ( Groves et al., 2019 ). By ensuring that consequences of decisions for their interests are addressed in the scenario design, the more easily tools will be called upon to inform policy ( Österblom et al., 2013 ). Scenarios should reflect potential changes to ecosystem stressors (e.g., warming Arctic), and potential societal response (e.g., relocation of infrastructure to support fisheries, shipping lanes, settlements, offshore energy platforms, continued fishing moratoria, etc.) to those changes ( Levin et al., 2009 ). In order to inform decisions that will lead to more resilient communities in the face of global changes, decision support tools should include worst case scenarios including low-probability, high-consequence events such as regime shifts, accidents, disasters, and unknown-unknowns ( Groves et al., 2019 ). Moreover lessons learned from cases where the science uptake to decision-making has helped to navigate environmental challenges (so-called “bright spots”), should help to build mutual confidence and trust between science and policy makers, and encourage a participatory process ( Cvitanovic and Hobday, 2018 ).

(48) How can we ensure that ocean assessments and road map exercises include a spectrum of scenarios that adequately reflect feasible intervention options, relationships, and outcomes?

(49) How can we effectively account for low-probability but high-consequence events, and unknown unknowns in ocean decision support systems?

(50) How can we best catalyze, impede or buffer change when signals point to an impending tipping point in ocean systems?

Policy Coherence

Ocean governance often occurs in environments and at scales where environmental and political boundaries are incongruent ( Maxwell et al., 2015 ; Skern-Mauritzen et al., 2016 ; Song et al., 2017 ; Pinsky et al., 2018 ; Kaiser et al., 2019 ). Addressing cross-boundary ocean governance challenges requires coordination, both at a sub-national level within countries and at a regional level for the ABNJ ( Pinsky et al., 2018 ). Policy coherence – the degree to which policies in different sectors or jurisdictions align in their objectives – is needed, but challenges remain in its achievement ( Cavallo et al., 2016 ; Jay et al., 2016 ; Gelcich et al., 2018 ). Too often the mandates and operations of one government agency are directly at odds with others, hindering cooperation and communication necessary for implementing sound management strategies that help ensure government agencies are working in ways that mutually contribute to sustainable ocean governance. Whenever policy coherence is not manageable, there is still room for scientific international cooperation to act as a soft power through the means of science diplomacy, in which a knowledge-based international partnership is built to address common challenges and their results may point to a need in better policy coordination, even between conflicting nations ( Koppelman et al., 2010 ).

(51) How can we best align policies and legislation across levels of government and international organizations to facilitate integrated ocean governance?

(52) How can governments align strategies and investments to create synergistic ‘win-win’ solutions and maximize the environmental, social, and economic benefits from ocean use?

Nature and Use of Evidence in Decision-Making: From Knowledge to Action

In recent decades, the demand for evidence-based decision-making has increased dramatically in policy topics related to conservation and sustainability ( Persson et al., 2018 ). Diverse evidence based predictive systems contribute to the generation of knowledge for sustainable development, and can include information from numerous disciplines, such as the natural and social sciences, as well as stakeholders, along with other traditional knowledge systems ( Tengö et al., 2014 ; Hazard et al., 2019 ). In order for traditional knowledge to be effectively a part of the decision-making system proper respect and recognition of the differing epistemologies is essential ( Foley, 2003 ; Buys et al., 2004 ; Mokuku and Mokuku, 2004 ). In order for sustainability efforts to be successful, the exchange of knowledge between knowledge generators, such as scientists or public, and the end-users, such as decision and policy makers, must support learning and effectively foster evidence-based decision making ( Cvitanovic et al., 2016 ) and enable transitions in governance arrangements through emerging forms of public participation ( Wyborn et al., 2019 ). Consequently, the knowledge to action framework requires that diverse stakeholders, including the knowledge producers and consumers, be included in the co-production of knowledge to increase the usability of science for society ( Bednarek et al., 2018 ; Djenontin and Meadow, 2018 ).

(53) How can we best arrive at an agreement as to what constitutes credible evidence for knowledge users?

(54) How can we help policy- and decision-makers understand and respond to scientific uncertainties and expert disagreements?

(55) How can local and traditional knowledge best be respected and used alongside western scientific knowledge to inform ocean science management and governance?

(56) How do different political cultures and institutions acquire and use scientific evidence for ocean governance and management?

(57) How can we best develop governance frameworks and evidence that highlight and overcome the problem of shifting baselines?

Addressing New/Emerging Governance Challenges

New technologies are opening up possibilities for ocean use, including for-profit extraction of novel ocean resources [e.g., mesopelagic fish ( John et al., 2016 ), seafloor minerals ( Hoagland et al., 2010 ), genetic resources ( Harden-Davies, 2017 )], and geoengineering interventions to help mitigate damage posed due to global carbon emission ( Boyd and Vivian, 2019 ). The emerging technologies do, however, have unknown indirect effects on the ocean environment and the ecosystem services that oceans provide ( Hoagland et al., 2010 ; John et al., 2016 ; Boyd and Vivian, 2019 ). New types and levels of risk need to be assessed and governance choices need to be made in a context of deep uncertainty ( Schindler and Hilborn, 2015 ). How we use new technologies, and how we allocate the full costs and benefits that may arise from technological innovation will remain a challenge as the speed of technological innovation continues to accelerate.

(58) How can geo-engineering of the ocean be governed?

(59) How can we best manage diseases that have the potential to move among wild and domestic marine species, and directly or indirectly affect human health?

(60) How can intellectual property rights and other emerging ocean ecosystem goods and services best be governed so as to ensure sustainable use and fair distribution of benefits from marine products, and to minimize impact on other ecosystems?

(61) How can mesopelagic fisheries be governed so as to balance the potential economic benefits of ecosystem services they provide, e.g., fishery production, biodiversity, and carbon storage?

(62) How do we govern human activities at sea in a manner that accounts for the rapid changes of the ecosystems due to climate change, connectivity and linkages of ocean processes in time and space?

Environmental Justice

Governance is not just about setting directions based on the objectives of a societal majority but also on ensuring rights for minorities, or disadvantaged segments of society ( Bennett, 2018 ). Research over the past two decades in the terrestrial realm has demonstrated how many economically or politically marginalized segments of society are exposed to relatively more environmental degradation where they live compared to segments that are not marginalized ( Whitmee et al., 2015 ). Residents in less wealthy countries and regions are often exposed to high levels of pollution and contaminants, and derive health risks from these ( Hernández-Delgado, 2015 ). Moreover, many developing countries due to exposure to coastal flooding, growing population pressure, and weak governance, are among those at greatest risk to the impacts of climate change and fisheries challenges ( Hernández-Delgado, 2015 ; Golden et al., 2016 ; Blasiak et al., 2017 ). Whilst degraded land and seascapes have been linked with negative health impacts of Indigenous and Traditional Peoples ( Garnett et al., 2009 ; Durkalec et al., 2015 ), there is also a strong link between healthy environments and traditional land and sea management ( Yibarbuk et al., 2001 ; Schmidt and Peterson, 2009 ; Ens et al., 2016 ; Renwick et al., 2017 ; Garnett et al., 2018 ). Recognition of the positive environmental outcomes in habitats that are occupied by Indigenous and Traditional Peoples needs to be recognized for the coastal and marine space, as it has in the terrestrial environment, as alternate solutions for improved environmental fairness ( Aziz et al., 2013 ). Moreover, although global health has generally improved in recent decades, these improvements have often been “mortgaged against the health of future generations to realize economic and development gains in the present” ( Whitmee et al., 2015 ). Mechanisms for recognizing and considering the voice of youth and children in ocean governance are thus also needed.

(63) How can ocean resources be best used to positively impact human health and livelihoods of contemporary and future generations globally, and likewise contribute positively to traditional cultures, and the identities of Indigenous and Traditional Peoples?

(64) How can resilience and increased capacity to deal with ocean and coastal change best be enhanced among the people, communities, and societies most adversely affected?

(65) How can better understanding worldviews of people and cultures help inform sustainable ocean solutions?

Ocean Value

The ocean provides humans with benefits on multiple dimensions, such as food and nutrition, financial benefits for individuals and firms harvesting ocean resources, protection in the form of coastal defenses, employment and livelihoods to families living in coastal communities, climate and atmospheric regulation services, and beyond ( Worm et al., 2006 ; Beaumont et al., 2007 ; Levin et al., 2009 ; Barbier et al., 2011 ; Barbier, 2017 ). In a broad context, ‘value’ reflects moral and ethical positions, so care must be exercised when considering what value represents to various people and communities ( Costanza et al., 1997 ; Hein et al., 2006 ; Johnston and Russell, 2011 ; Bidwell, 2017 ). In economics, values are a reflection of the trade-offs people are willing to make between goods and services that are consumed or used, and economic value depends on personal preferences ( de Groot et al., 2002 ; Hein et al., 2006 ; Boyd and Banzhaf, 2007 ; Barbier et al., 2011 ). One further complication arises because often the term ‘ocean value’ is used in relation to the ‘blue economy’ and economic development of the ocean: the term value in that context can be interpreted as the contribution of ocean goods and services to national GDP or other measures of economic activity.

Food Production Systems

Oceans have been a food source throughout human history and provide humans with multiple nutritional benefits. Health outcomes, especially for children, can be improved through diets that supply proteins, fatty acids, and micro-nutrients from seafoods ( Golden et al., 2016 ; Willett et al., 2019 ). However the growing diversity of pressures on the marine environment, including climate change, jeopardize the security of these food production systems, and least developed countries and small island developing states that are most dependent on fisheries to deliver the majority of their animal protein are among the most vulnerable ( Barange et al., 2014 ). Aquaculture has grown rapidly in recent years, and has overtaken the commercial production of wild caught fisheries ( Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2020 ). Aquaculture still carries a wide range of impacts on the marine environment, and the demand for fishmeal to feed aquaculture continues to place a pressure on wild fish stocks ( Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2020 ).

(66) How can positive nutritional benefits from seafood be enhanced and promoted?

(67) How can the trade of marine food products be better monitored and managed to ensure human health?

(68) How can sustainable seafood production best help to achieve global food security?

Poverty Alleviation

Many of the world’s poorest families, communities, and countries rely heavily on seafood harvesting and other ocean resources for income ( Béné et al., 2016 ; Golden et al., 2016 ). Resources from the sea play a major role in alleviating poverty ( Walmsley et al., 2006 ; Sowman et al., 2014 ), a major focus of the SDGs. To increase the contributions of ocean resources to poverty alleviation requires more information about the nature of markets for ocean resources and how different development strategies help or hinder poverty alleviation ( Béné et al., 2016 ; Campbell et al., 2016 ; Nilsson et al., 2016 ).

(69) How can we best manage any adverse effects arising from increased consumption of ocean resources arising as poverty is alleviated?

(70) How best can small-scale fisheries be used to increase food security while contributing to poverty alleviation?

(71) How can we sustain small-scale fisheries in globalized economies?

(72) How can we best protect those living in poverty from market price effects arising from the trade or regulation of ocean resources?

Valuation of Coasts and Oceans

Ecosystem goods consist of physical products that are taken from nature for human use. Ecosystem services encompass the processes that natural and biological systems sustain human systems ( de Groot et al., 2002 ). Nearshore and coastal marine systems provide essential ecosystem goods and services to people, and consequently serve as a fundamental link between people and the environment ( Barbier, 2017 ). Many of the types of ecosystem and environmental services that the marine environment provides, ranging from food from fisheries to coastal protection to education opportunities, is now well understood ( Fisher et al., 2009 ). The market value of ecosystem goods and services represent the price or value of the goods or services traded in the market. Conversely, the provisioning of non-market goods includes things such as biodiversity or wetland ecosystems, along with the satisfaction that people derive from knowing a habitat or ecosystem exists. These non-market values represent the hidden social costs and benefits of ecosystem goods and services and are much more challenging to measure than market values since their value is external to the market ( Howarth and Farber, 2002 ).

Consequently, if all values obtained from ecosystem goods and services are not accounted for in the valuation process, they are likely to be underemphasized or ignored in policy decisions. This is especially relevant to ecosystem goods and services that are not traded in the marketplace. Therefore, it is essential to consider the total economic value of marine ecosystem goods and services (i.e., including the full range of non-market benefits) to ensure that any impacts on the ocean environment or to communities dependent on marine habitats and resources are adequately reflected in economic-based policy decisions ( Fisher et al., 2009 ).

(73) How can we best assess the relative contribution of marine biodiversity to benefits humans derive from the ocean?

(74) How best can we assess the economic value of the ocean?

(75) What are the effects of commodifying nature on ocean sustainability and human well-being?

(76) What is the societal value of sub-surface carbon sequestration, e.g., from the mesopelagic?

Technological and Socio-Economic Innovation

Innovation will also need to be central if ocean sustainability is to be attained. Investments in a variety of societal assets will be needed, ranging from technological innovation for monitoring and modeling ( Moltmann et al., 2019 ; Danovaro et al., 2020 ), to new types of financing arrangements, e.g. ( Bos et al., 2015 ; Thiele and Gerber, 2017 ), and to new ways to directly conserve and enhance natural capital ( Ouyang et al., 2016 ; Leach et al., 2019 ).

Enhancement and Restoration of Ecosystem Goods and Services

Ecosystem goods and services can be enhanced by traditional restoration efforts and management systems and through recent developments that draw on technological advances and an improved understanding of ecology ( Morris et al., 2018 ). Natural ecosystems such as seagrass beds, mangroves and coral reefs provide added resilience against impacts of climate change by stabilizing coast lines, and protecting coastal areas from storm surges and wave action ( Narayan et al., 2016 ). They can provide important structural habitats and nutrient sources that support biodiversity and nursery areas for fisheries ( Whitfield, 2017 ), and an important role in sequestering carbon ( Macreadie et al., 2017 ). Restoration of particular ecosystem goods and services also provides opportunities for some communities to enter the market system for the service they provide in maintaining and restoring ecosystems (e.g., such as mangroves, see Vierros, 2017 ).

(77) How can we best enhance natural climate change mitigation mechanisms in the ocean?

(78) How and when can we restore depleted marine species that are commercially important?

(79) How do we best ensure that we derive environmental, social and economic advantages from marine protected areas?

(80) How can we best restore, rehabilitate, or compensate for habitat loss?

Technological Innovation

Technology is developing rapidly on virtually all fronts, and offers new possibilities to understand ocean dynamics and contribute to ocean sustainability ( Bean et al., 2017 ). New types of sensors and data collection platforms (e.g., gliders, drones), environmental genomics, sonar have emerged and expanded the reach, resolution, diversity and depths of ocean information available ( Moltmann et al., 2019 ). Efforts to disseminate and harmonize information across a wide diversity of users will need to keep pace with the data as it emerges ( Muller-Karger et al., 2018 ). New technologies also pose governance challenges (e.g., deep sea mining, geoengineering) because they are developing quickly and there may be limited opportunities to field test them and ascertain short- and long-term consequences of their deployment ( McGee et al., 2018 ; Boyd and Vivian, 2019 ).

(81) How can we develop advanced forensics for tracing and managing the sources of existing and emerging contaminants in the ocean?

(82) How can we best minimize waste and capture the full value of marine resources?

(83) How can advances in vessel monitoring technology best be developed and deployed to monitor and detect illegal behavior in the oceans?

(84) How can advances in technology and data processing best be utilized to increase the likelihood of compliance with regulations governing marine resource use?

(85) How can we best design and implement complex, large-scale coastal infrastructure projects?

(86) How can advances in genetics best be used to identify and develop new opportunities for sustainable ocean use?

(87) How can we develop and govern rapidly evolving new technologies that potentially affect both ocean health and the well-being of people and industries that rely on the ocean?

(88) How can government policy and investment decisions best facilitate rapid technological advances that foster more sustainable use of the oceans?

People and Communities

Innovation for ocean sustainability is not limited to enhancing the natural environment or fostering technological innovation, but also includes innovations in the way people are educated and trained ( International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Commission on Education and Communication, 2002 ), and innovations in the way that organizations and communities organize ocean activities and management ( Addison et al., 2018 ). Innovations that increase levels of human and social capital can be just as, or more, effective in supporting ocean sustainability as are investments in ecological enhancement and technological development ( Šlaus and Jacobs, 2011 ). Some efforts include citizen and participatory science efforts, training and education programs, and science communication ( Fritz et al., 2019 ; Schrögel and Kolleck, 2019 ). As environmental systems are complex, capacity development and education must support skills rooted in systems thinking, engagement in diverse collaborations and partnerships, and leadership and management expertise ( Bodin, 2017 ). For example, investments in the leadership capacity of individuals from fishing communities can help alleviate overfishing ( Sutton and Rudd, 2015 ).

(89) How can we rapidly increase the skills of workforces and bureaucracies to support the global transition to an environmentally, socially and economically sustainable blue economy?

(90) How can we create capacity for systems thinking and promote cross-disciplinary collaborations for solving complex ocean challenges?

(91) How can we best use innovations in citizen science to foster ocean health and human well-being?

(92) How can we best build management and leadership capacity among citizens and communities engaging in coastal and ocean governance and management?

Incentivizing Sustainable Business Practices

Global supply chains that link the producers of ocean resources to the consumers and firms that use off those resources can be exceedingly complex, weakening the links between producers and consumers ( Crona et al., 2016 ). Moving toward more sustainable oceans will require change in both production practices and consumer behavior. To be most effective, there needs to be clear signals from one end of the supply chain to another and mechanisms that encourage sustainable business practices and household consumption choices. On the production side, firms extracting or using ocean ecosystem services or the ocean environment (e.g., to produce renewable energy) have potential to improve their production practices, reducing adverse environmental and social impact ( Kaldellis et al., 2016 ). Profitability will always be the driver for private sector firms, so measures that increase firm revenues and/or decrease costs influence their behavior. Governments have traditional regulatory and fiscal (e.g., tax) tools – the ‘sticks’ – at their disposal for activities within national jurisdiction but there are also opportunities for various types of incentives – the ‘carrots’ – to encourage more sustainable firm behavior. There are also other options to increase profitability by opening markets for byproducts, including incentivizing waste reduction and valorization (e.g., Geissdoerfer et al., 2018 ). Further, along the many different points along the supply chain that brings ocean resources into the marketplace, there may, for instance, be further measures to increase the efficacy of the supply chain, reducing food waste, and increasing transparency. For industries that use ocean resources, there are also options to use regulatory or non-regulatory measures that are aimed at increasing production efficiency, getting more out of every unit of resource extracted from the ocean.

(93) How can international trade systems be incentivized so as to retain stable and affordable local food systems?

(94) How can we encourage private sector investment for sustainable marine products supply and value chains?

(95) How can we best ensure that the costs of ocean degradation and benefits of ocean stewardship are properly attributed to responsible parties?

(96) How can socially responsible business practices in the ocean sector best be rewarded so that both environmental sustainability and long-term business resilience are enhanced?

(97) How can environmental sustainability create economic value for ocean industries?

(98) How can innovations in financing be used to accelerate ocean stewardship and sustainability?

Incentivizing Sustainable Consumer Behavior

Consumer choices are highly dependent on product prices but consumers are also motivated by other factors, including perceived environmental threats, the availability of information about the environmental consequences of their consumption choices, and prevailing social norms ( Stern et al., 1999 ). In general, options for nudging consumption choices in a way that support ocean sustainability include measures that impact consumer prices for ocean products or their substitutes, help consumers make informed purchase decisions that take account of the personal or environmental health impacts of their personal consumption choice, and that encourage social norms more conducive for supporting ocean sustainability. Challenges for those wanting to make sustainable seafood consumption choices include widespread mis-labeling of products in the marketplace ( Jacquet and Pauly, 2008 ) and potential confusion over competing labeling standards ( Parkes et al., 2010 ). Premium prices for sustainable seafood are not always passed back to ocean resource producers, so they may not receive any ‘market signal’ about consumer demand for sustainable production ( Blomquist et al., 2015 ). New technologies such as DNA barcoding ( Galimberti et al., 2013 ), blockchain ( Cook and Zealand, 2018 ), and evolving consumer apps have the potential to encourage sustainable purchasing behavior and dramatically improve traceability along the seafood supply chain.

(99) How best can we influence consumer choices so as to sustainably increase benefits derived from oceans?

(100) What is the most beneficial information for consumers wishing to make informed decisions about the environmental and social impacts of their personal ocean-relevant consumption choices?

Transformational change of governance and management, supported by the co-creation of transdisciplinary knowledge, is essential to achieve SDGs ( Singh et al., 2018 ). In order to supply relevant evidence to inform policy, sustainability research must address cross-disciplinary questions using inclusive research approaches. We have used scientists’ written outputs to identify and track important and emerging ocean sustainability issues. We have drawn attention to the interconnections among these questions which underlines the interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary nature of the issues we are facing. In the transdisciplinary context, knowledge is co-created with an inclusive diversity of disciplines (including the natural, social sciences, technology, public health, engineering, law, economics, educators, anthropology, psychology etc.) and through the interaction with stakeholders and publics/citizens ( Wyborn et al., 2019 ). Additional research within any of these disciplines is necessary, but alone is insufficient to achieve ocean sustainability. There is likewise a need to build upon existing research, as well as the design and use of new transdisciplinary knowledge to support transformations/transitions to ocean sustainability.

Making Cross-Disciplinary Approaches the Norm

Participatory governance processes will be at the front and center going forward. Scientists and governance researchers will need to co-create the answers to societal questions to support SDGs, and resources will therefore need to be allocated for both science and governance research, and increasing the uptake of science to policy. One important implication is, further, that crafting and answering contextually sophisticated research questions necessarily needs input from across academic disciplines and from different types of actors. Cross-disciplinary approaches to sustainability research should be considered the norm for real problem solving ( Brandt et al., 2013 ). Issues surrounding whose values are recognized and which types of interventions are considered feasible will virtually always be present when considering management and governance options for supporting ocean sustainability.

Natural science questions cannot be totally isolated from the broader management, governance, and human concerns ( Bodin, 2017 ). Our list of 100 questions is broad and thematic. The issues they address are complex, and would require refinement to be addressed. It would be possible to expand on the rationale for each question and each question could be the focus of a research program. The priority each of these questions receive will necessarily vary across regions and jurisdictions. We provided an example of how our list of 100 questions could be refined to form more specific questions. Our list of 100 questions could likewise be customized by region for research students, departments, and national and international research initiatives for any scale, ecosystem, or socio-political context. While these research questions cover the great majority of issues covered in the recent literature on ocean research and governance the list of 100 should be interpreted as ‘100 important questions’ not the ‘100 most important questions,’ since the final choice of topics to include was to some degree a subjective perspective.

Aligning These 100 Ocean Governance Research Questions With the UN Decade of Ocean Science and the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development

The UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development (The Decade) was adopted to foster significant development in knowledge supporting the management of the ocean and has two major goals, “to generate the scientific knowledge and underpinning infrastructure and partnerships needed for sustainable development of the ocean and to provide ocean science, data and information to inform policies for a well-functioning ocean in support of all Sustainable Development Goals of the 2030 Agenda” ( Ryabinin et al., 2019 ). The Decade has six guiding societal outcome areas: A clean ocean, a healthy and resilient ocean, a predicted ocean, a safe ocean, a sustainably harvested and productive ocean, and a transparent and accessible ocean. The strategic approach of The Decade includes a reciprocal interaction between research and knowledge generation and practical applications and policy initiatives, and this will require transdisciplinary and cross sectoral exchange of ideas, based on effective communication tools ( Bucchi and Trench, 2016 ).

We propose that our list of 100 important questions could serve as an independent starting point to stimulate discussion related to key emerging research needs for management- and governance-oriented research questions for the 2020s. Many of the questions that emerged from the horizon scanning exercise are important themes underpinning the societal outcome areas for The Decade ( Figure 1 ). For example, better understanding marine hazards and coastal risks is foundational to moving toward a safe ocean and information on climate change, cumulative impacts, and the enhancement and restoration of ecosystem goods and services is central to a healthy and resilient ocean. The research needs concerning novel governance challenges were related to emerging industries (e.g., Climate-geoengineering, Offshore resource extraction- deep sea mining, Fisheries- mesopelagic fisheries). Our questions represent some of the “known unknowns” that transdisciplinary science could address to inform ocean policy. As our Anthropocene ecosystems continue to reorganize and reshuffle in response to the diverse dynamics of global change, we can expect that critical unforeseen questions are likely to arise over time (currently “unknown unknowns”). Our capacity to contribute scientifically to understanding these dynamics and developing solutions to challenge may improve by embracing other forms of knowledge via more and broader social participation in knowledge production. We may also gain new insights and discoveries that highlight where we understood less than we thought. The questions will therefore evolve over time.

Figure 1. Sankey diagram detailing the connectivity between the broad themes and sub-headings (broad theme: sub-heading) related to the cross-disciplinary research questions outlined in this paper to the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development outcomes ( Ryabinin et al., 2019 ). Size of the colored boxes associated with each theme or outcome is related to the number of connections.

There is urgency for cross-disciplinary research, and also opportunity. The UN Decade of Ocean Science is a once in a lifetime opportunity to do things differently. The range of topics covered in this list questions necessitates an inclusive view of ocean science. Ocean science should include knowledge generation from many different disciplines, sectors, and from a diversity of stakeholder perspectives. Sustainable development relies on understanding the interplay between human and natural systems and the fair operation of society within planetary boundaries ( Steffen et al., 2015 ). This means that governance and management are front and center with essential input from nature and social science, law, public health, and policy researchers, industry, educators, civil society, traditional peoples, and across generations.

Going forward, basic monitoring and assessment of the social-ecological system will continue to be needed, in addition to cross-disciplinary theorization and methodologies ( Gurney et al., 2019 ; Kelly et al., 2019 ). Scientific and technological advances are necessary, but alone are insufficient to achieve better outcomes/impacts, and advancing technology can by no means be used to abdicate responsibility for ocean sustainability. We live in an age in which uncertainties need to be addressed, evaluated and communicated to inform better decision making, with a broader social participation so sustainability can actually be reached. Research on the processes of governance and management, and governing across jurisdictions is also needed to identify interventions that are effective ( Bennett and Dearden, 2014 ; Bodin, 2017 ). It is expected that we will need to accomplish as much as possible with the scarce resources that are expected to be allotted for ocean sustainability, as SDG14 is currently considered the lowest priority SDG of all for most countries ( Custer et al., 2018 ).

The political changes we are seeing in our world are likely to make transformative/transitional changes to participatory ocean governance challenging to achieve. Nevertheless, scientists cannot expect that scientific evidence will be used unless there is advocacy for the use of credible information in the political process. Mechanisms for such advocacy are needed. The spread of misinformation and disinformation campaigns, and other weaknesses in communication ( van der Linden and Löfstedt, 2019 ), means it may be more important than ever for scientists to be engaged in the political process in one way or another (e.g., public commentaries, participation in scientific societies such as AAAS, AGU, BES, etc.). At the very least, scientists should actively advocate the use of credible information and evidence based approaches to decision making, and dissuade the use of information that is not supported scientifically. The coming few years will be critical.

We hope that this paper will help students, professional organizations, industry members, and policy actors that are engaged in ocean problem solving to consider the breadth of ocean challenges, and seek opportunities to address them through inclusive research going forward. We also hope that it may act as a tool that helps ensure that a broad range of governance- and management-oriented challenges are considered. Sustainability research in an SDG context addresses societal challenges, and requires the co-creation of research that includes diverse branches of inquiry ranging from e.g., natural science, social science, traditional knowledge, philosophy, policy and governance research, law, human behavioral sciences, education science, and other disciplines. Further work can be done to identify the organizations and scientists who currently work on these topics, identify potential partnerships, and to build our capacities for cross-disciplinary research to address the challenges and opportunities ahead.

Author Contributions

MR designed the study and carried out the analyses. ES produced the Figure 1 . MW led the writing and wrote the paper with input from all authors. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.

MW was partly supported by the Vellum Velux fund project COAST_SEQUENCE, and Horizon 2020 project 817669 – Ecologically and economically sustainable mesopelagic fisheries (MEESO). ES was supported by the PEGASuS 2: Ocean Sustainability Program funded in part by the Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation’s Science Program and the NOMIS Foundation. AP was supported by the Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management and by the German Federal Ministry of Transport and Digital Infrastructure as part of the Land-to-Ocean Leadership Program at the Global Ocean Institute.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Keywords : ocean governance and management, interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary science, UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development, inclusive research, Anthropocene ocean, ecosystem services

Citation: Wisz MS, Satterthwaite EV, Fudge M, Fischer M, Polejack A, St. John M, Fletcher S and Rudd MA (2020) 100 Opportunities for More Inclusive Ocean Research: Cross-Disciplinary Research Questions for Sustainable Ocean Governance and Management. Front. Mar. Sci. 7:576. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2020.00576

Received: 10 March 2020; Accepted: 22 June 2020; Published: 06 August 2020.

Reviewed by:

Copyright © 2020 Wisz, Satterthwaite, Fudge, Fischer, Polejack, St. John, Fletcher and Rudd. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY) . The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

*Correspondence: Mary S. Wisz, [email protected]

Five ocean research topics to inspire your next paper [guide for students]

Beth Dempsey

Senior Manager, Content Marketing, Academia

Writing a great research paper is easier when you have a timely and focused topic. Our latest Global Research Report on ocean health by the Institute for Scientific Information (ISI)™ identifies compelling insights that can be explored for your next research paper. Keep reading for ocean research topics and keywords that branch across many different disciplines—from business to economics to the hard sciences.

According to data scientists at Clarivate™ and Oregon State University, ocean science research articles have increased threefold between 2000 and 2020, demonstrating a marked interest in ocean health.

You can use the insights from Ocean Science: sustainability concerns add urgency for research to identify focused, relevant and compelling ocean research topics for your next paper.

Why write about ocean health?

You will write a better paper if you care about the topic. If you need a little help getting on board with the importance of the planet’s oceans, read this passage from the introduction of our latest ISI Global Research Report :

Earth’s oceans cover approximately 70% of its surface and ultimately reach a depth of ~11 km in the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean. (Mt. Everest, for comparison, reaches a height of “only” ~9 km.) Most of the life on Earth is in its oceans, whether it is the fish that provide sustenance to coastal communities, or the plant life that supplies much of the air that we breathe (at least 50% of photosynthesis happens in the ocean). The oceans also mediate how Earth’s climate changes, for example, by exchanging immense amounts of thermal energy and gasses, such as carbon dioxide and oxygen, with the atmosphere, or through the impact that ocean conditions have on the fate of polar ice (this ice reflects many of the sun’s warming rays back to space and provides essential habitats).

You can also read our blog about how the research was conducted and its results .

Here are five ocean research topics and keywords for you to explore

Learn more about any of the following topics by using the suggested keywords in your literature search.

The impact of microplastics on ocean health

According to our ISI report, there is an “astonishing growth” of research on microplastics and oceans, providing a rich array of content for you to explore for a paper on the impact of microplastics on ocean health.

Keywords to search as you gather information: Microplastics; Nanoplastics; “Plastic debris”; “Marine litter”

Energy resources and plant life

Research growth is happening in other areas, too. What has researchers so interested in these two ocean research topics?

Gas Hydrates: They reside in some marine sediments. Pro: Their carbon content makes them a valuable energy resource. Con: decomposition can release greenhouse gases

Keywords to use in your search: Hydrate Formation; Methane Hydrate; Hydrate Stability

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A decade of progress in marine evolutionary biology

Pierre de wit.

1 Linnaeus Centre for Marine Evolutionary Biology, University of Gothenburg, Strömstad Sweden

2 Department of Marine Sciences, Tjärnö Marine Laboratory, University of Gothenburg, Strömstad Sweden

Ellika Faust

3 Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg Sweden

Marlene Jahnke

Ricardo t. pereyra, marina rafajlović.

4 Department of Marine Sciences, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg Sweden

Associated Data

Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analyzed in this study.

This article summarizes the Evolutionary Applications Special Issue, “A decade of progress in Marine Evolutionary Biology.” The globally connected ocean, from its pelagic depths to its highly varied coastlines, inspired Charles Darwin to develop the theory of evolution during the voyage of the Beagle. As technology has developed, there has been a dramatic increase in our knowledge about life on our blue planet. This Special Issue, composed of 19 original papers and seven reviews, represents a small contribution to the larger picture of recent research in evolutionary biology, and how such advancements come about through the connection of researchers, their fields, and their knowledge. The first European network for marine evolutionary biology, the Linnaeus Centre for Marine Evolutionary Biology (CeMEB), was developed to study evolutionary processes in the marine environment under global change. Though hosted by the University of Gothenburg in Sweden, the network quickly grew to encompass researchers throughout Europe and beyond. Today, more than a decade after its foundation, CeMEB's focus on the evolutionary consequences of global change is more relevant than ever, and knowledge gained from marine evolution research is urgently needed in management and conservation. This Special Issue, organized and developed through the CeMEB network, contains contributions from all over the world and provides a snapshot of the current state of the field, thus forming an important basis for future research directions.

1. INTRODUCTION

This Special Issue is a celebration of the first European network for marine evolutionary biology, the Linnaeus Centre for Marine Evolutionary Biology (CeMEB), established in 2008 at the University of Gothenburg, Sweden. The creation of CeMEB was inspired by the societal need to better understand adaptation to changing marine environments and facilitated by funding from the Swedish Research Councils (see Johannesson et al.,  2022 ; this issue, for more details). Key scientific topics addressed in the more than 500 CeMEB‐related publications to date include local adaptation, modeling of the distribution and genetic structure of marine species, and the incorporation of genomic information into conservation management.

The aim of this Special Issue is to gather contributions that advance the understanding of evolution in the marine realm and to bridge our knowledge gaps about processes such as adaptation to local environments, connectivity, intraspecific divergence, as well as the underlying ecological, physiological, and genetic mechanisms that influence these processes. Much of our empirical knowledge on evolutionary biology stems from terrestrial model systems, and yet a large part of the tree of life exists only in the marine environment (May,  1994 ). Consequently, it is critical to also develop new model systems from marine taxa. Marine Evolutionary Biology is a young field of research, historically considered a difficult‐to‐study special case of general evolutionary biology, yet it has expanded and matured rapidly in the past decades. This expansion, in part, stems from the development of novel sequencing technologies that allow for the study of less accessible systems, such as the marine realm, in more detail. This Special Issue provides a glimpse of the current state of Marine Evolutionary Biology research while delivering perspectives on the advances during the past decade that have led to the present state. More information on CeMEB is available at https://www.gu.se/en/cemeb‐marine‐evolutionary‐biology .

This Issue consists of 26 articles with perspectives, review articles, and original research in Marine Evolution. Perspective/review pieces include reflections on the development of Marine Evolutionary Biology research as a whole (Johannesson et al.,  2022 ), as well as detailed considerations of marine evo‐devo research (Stracke & Hejnol,  2022 ), on divergence and speciation in the sea (De Jode et al.,  2022 ), and on human‐mediated evolution (Touchard et al.,  2022 ). Furthermore, several manuscripts describe how technological improvements have allowed for more in‐depth studies of genomic divergence (Pampoulie et al.,  2022 ), the evolution of polymorphic traits (Gefaell et al.,  2022 ), and the genomic mechanisms underlying phenotypic traits (Li & Hui,  2022 ). One major topic studied within the Marine Evolutionary Biology community is the interplay between genetic and plastic mechanisms in the processes of local adaptation, ecotype formation, and speciation, and how these processes may be impacted by, e.g., sexual selection, individuals' dispersal patterns, or species‐specific genomic properties, such as the size and distribution of chromosomal rearrangements (e.g., Faria et al.,  2021 ; Ravinet et al.,  2017 ). Herein, these processes are addressed in diverse empirical model systems ranging from diatoms to mollusks and fish (Green et al.,  2022 ; Le Moan et al.,  2022 ; Sefbom et al.,  2022 ; Zhang et al.,  2022 ), as well as in silico in two theoretical modeling studies (Eriksson et al.,  2022 ; Marshall & Connallon,  2022 ). The link between genotype and phenotype is also the focus of several empirical studies here (Gefaell et al.,  2022 ; Stenger et al.,  2022 ; Walker et al.,  2022 ), as is the seascape genomics of a wide range of taxa (Delaval, Bendall, et al.,  2022 ; Delaval, Frost, et al.,  2022 ; Fitz et al.,  2022 ; Lapègue et al.,  2022 ; Matias et al.,  2022 ; Palumbi et al.,  2022 ; Pampoulie et al.,  2022 ), which has important implications for management of marine resources. Finally, the breadth of phylogenetic diversity and evolutionary history in the oceans is the topic of several articles focusing on the larval development of gastropods (Korshunova et al.,  2022 ; Sun et al.,  2022 ) and the evolution of small RNAs in cnidarians (Li & Hui,  2022 ). Although the work of this issue was initiated, coordinated, and edited by CeMEB, the contributions are from research groups throughout Europe, Asia, and North America. Eight of 26 contributions are authored by members of the CeMEB network.

2. OVERVIEW OF THE ISSUE

The field of Marine Evolutionary Biology has matured substantially since the founding of CeMEB in 2008. In order to gain a detailed historical perspective of this progress from the people involved, we consider it important to include the views of the founding researchers. The first article of the issue is therefore an invited perspective, which reflects on the networking and scientific activities of the Centre, co‐authored by the steering committee of the Centre from 2008–2018. Here, Johannesson et al. ( 2022 ) go from lessons learned to a look into the future and give their viewpoint on how the field of marine evolutionary biology has been, and still is, evolving. The authors state that the 10‐year funding of the Centre has allowed it to act like a “large sailing ship,” riding the winds of science forward, and highlighting the marine realm as an important focus for evolutionary biology. They discuss the importance of novel sequencing technologies and the difficulties of creating new marine model systems and reference genomes in species with complex genome arrangements, and conclude that while much has been learned since 2008, far more work is still needed to understand local adaptations to a fluctuating multivariate environment, the regulatory pathways behind genotype–phenotype interactions and, more broadly, the diversity of life in the oceans. These important topics are the main focus of this Special Issue.

2.1. Local adaptation to a multivariate environment

Genetic adaptation and phenotypic plasticity interact to regulate individuals' responses to environmental changes, determining how a population or species will evolve. In this Special Issue, responses of local populations to environmental drivers are addressed in several articles. Sefbom et al. ( 2022 ) address the paradox of marine organisms with high dispersal potential—in this case, the marine microalga Skeletonema marinoi —and nevertheless strong population structure and local adaptation. The authors used reciprocal transplants of multiple strains grown in different salinities and found that when grown alone, both marine and estuarine strains performed best in a high‐salinity environment. By contrast, when strains were allowed to compete, strains with marine genomic background performed better than estuarine strains in the marine environment. While this study highlights genetic mechanisms behind the local adaptation, other studies have pointed at epigenetic variation as another important mechanism for rapid acclimation to global change (Allendorf et al.,  2022 ; Stajic & Jansen,  2021 ). Scheschonk et al. ( 2022 ) assessed the epigenetic methylome of the economically important kelp Saccharina latissima from two wild populations sampled at different latitudes (Germany 54° N; Svalbard 78° N) and tracked methylation/epigenetic changes in common‐garden cultivations at different temperatures. The latitudinal origin was associated with differences in the methylome and the results suggest that methylation mechanisms can also result in different and locally adapted “eco‐phenotypes.”

Common‐garden experiments are often used to evaluate the performance of individuals under future climate change. Walker et al. ( 2022 ) experimentally investigated bleaching resistance and recovery among colonies of the coral Acropora hyacinthus in Palau, by measuring coral bleaching, mortality, and skeletal growth. They showed that, although heat resistance and mortality were overall negatively correlated, the skeletal growth of less heat‐resistant corals was significantly faster than in corals highly resistant to heat stress. These findings suggest that heat‐stress capacity is costly, which may have a critical impact on future populations' resilience, arguing for the need to incorporate multiple resilience indicators in management actions.

Although common‐garden and reciprocal transplant experiments are powerful tools to test local adaptation and stress tolerance, the interpretation of results may be challenging. Plastic responses can be invaluable to mitigate species' vulnerability to rapid global change; however, Eriksson et al. ( 2022 ) argue that traditional approaches comparing reaction norms of organisms exposed to different environments may not account for the adaptive value of plastic responses. The authors supported this argument by comparing modeling simulations of adaptive vs fitness‐correlated traits. They concluded that some knowledge of the relationship between assessed traits and fitness is crucial to understand the adaptive nature of plasticity. The authors then applied the modeling insights in a reciprocal transplant experiment and inferred that Idotea balthica isopods from brackish water showed reduced adaptive plasticity compared with a marine population. Marshall and Connallon ( 2022 ) also propose a theoretical modeling approach to assess adaptation in species with complex life histories. Using an extension of Fisher's geometric model, the authors explored the correlations between traits and functions across different life stages to shed light on the evolutionary dynamics of these complex life histories. Their results showed that the emergence of fitness trade‐offs between stages may be common, either through divergent selection or mutation and, while evolutionary conflicts may intensify during adaptation, carry‐over effects can mitigate the conflict favoring survival in earlier life histories at the expense of later stages. Overall, this study implies that organisms with complex life histories could be more constrained in their capacity to adapt to global change than those with simple life histories.

2.2. Seascape approaches

The responses of populations to future climate change (in terms of adaptive capability, range shifts, and expansions of native and non‐native/invasive species) depend, in part, on individuals' dispersal abilities across the seascape (realized connectivity/gene flow). In this Special Issue, dispersal across the seascape and consequences for management are studied in multiple systems, including microalgae, corals, mollusks, and fish. Touchard et al. ( 2022 ) address marine evolution and local adaptation in ports and other areas, which are strongly impacted or rapidly changed by human activities. The authors discuss how rapid evolution in harbors, for instance, driven by adaptation to toxins or hybridizations, has been accelerated by a combination of human impacts, the mixing of native and invasive taxa, and elevated connectivity over large spatial distances due to boating activities. It is a fascinating discourse on what lessons marine evolutionary biology can learn from “biological portuarization,” the repeated evolution of marine species in port‐ecosystems and how researchers could best make use of ports by treating them as giant—and strongly replicated—mesocosm experiments for supporting predictive marine evolution. Parallel evolution is likewise one focal point of Lapègue et al.'s ( 2022 ) study on native flat oyster Ostrea edulis populations along the European coast. Here, a clear genetic break was found between the Atlantic and the Mediterranean, but oysters at the far ends of the distribution (North Sea—Black Sea) shared outlier loci exhibiting similar allele frequency shifts, indicating either a shared evolutionary history among the two areas, or parallel selective pressures at the range edges acting on standing genetic variation. Further, evolution at species range edges is empirically scrutinized in Green et al.'s ( 2022 ) study on the invasive round goby Neogobius melanostomus , which was tested for genomic and phenotypic differences across short spatial scales but in a strong environmental gradient. The findings showed both genotypic and phenotypic differences over surprisingly small scales. Multiple introductions together with strong selective sorting pressures on standing genetic variation were concluded to be a likely cause of this pattern in the gobies, just as in the oysters.

Physical separation of two populations inhabiting the marine environment can either occur abruptly through a geographic barrier as seen in the oysters above or gradually with increasing physical (or oceanographic) distance due to limitations in dispersal (classic isolation‐by‐distance). In two related articles in this Special Issue, Delaval, Bendall, et al. ( 2022 ) assessed dispersal and abundance in the blue skate, Dipturus batis in north‐east Atlantic waters, a species under continuous fishing‐ and by‐catch pressure. In one of the studies, they implemented a novel modeling approach using closely‐related individuals from fished samples, “Close‐kin mark‐recapture” (CKMR), to estimate demographic parameters relevant for conservation, e.g., adult breeding abundance and survival rates. Using this approach with SNP data from the blue skate samples, they found indications of stable population sizes across time series, while identifying site fidelity in the species, suggesting an area needed for the blue skate conservation (critical habitat). Traditional fisheries‐independent approaches evaluate several species at once and are often biased due to insufficient knowledge of individual species biology, while mark‐recapture methods are frequently insufficient given the usual low rates of tag and animal recapture. Thus, this modeling approach may represent a promising alternative for fisheries management. Taking a seascape genomic approach, Delaval, Frost, et al. ( 2022 ) also genotyped blue skates and correlated allele frequencies with environmental parameters. When characterizing contemporary population structure, the deep waters of Rockall Trough were identified as a barrier separating inshore (British Isles) and offshore (Rockall and Faroe) individuals, with small effective population sizes in some areas. The isolation of offshore populations compared with high coastal connectivity highlights the importance of bathymetric barriers, rather than isolation‐by‐distance, which has been observed in many other elasmobranchs. Fitz et al. ( 2022 ) focused on the population genetic patterns of the anemonefish Amphiprion biaculeatus , comparing different geographic determinants of genetic structure. Here, the authors present models detailing whether spatial distance or dispersal with currents best explained genetic separation in this rare reef fish and concluded that, while oceanographic currents best explained genetic patterns at large scale (>150 km), isolation‐by‐distance was a stronger determinant at smaller geographic scales.

In organisms with a mixture of long‐ and short‐range dispersal, population genetic patterns can become increasingly complex. Palumbi et al. ( 2022 ) present such a study case on south Pacific corals. Genetic differentiation in corals is usually found over long distances (hundreds or thousands of kilometers). However, the authors found mitochondrial genetic differentiation in the staghorn coral Acropora hyacinthus in Palau over much shorter distances (1–25 km), with closely‐related mitochondrial genomes more likely to co‐occur on the same reef than expected by chance. Additional data from distant colonies in American Samoa indicated higher differentiation between the Palau and American Samoa samples, but also some shared identical mitochondrial genomes. These findings were supportive of rare long‐distance dispersal in the studied coral populations and a stronger retention tendency of some genome sequences over others. Consequently, the authors call for monitoring the retention tendency and to use these data to aid assisted migration management plans. Matias et al. ( 2022 ) further illustrate the complexity of spatial genetic variation in corals. Using genome‐wide SNPs, the authors examined the genetic variation of the reef‐building coral Acropora tenuis and its associated endosymbiotic algae along the entire Great Barrier Reef. While this study found that the corals differentiated into three distinct genetic clusters associated with latitude and inshore–offshore reef position, the symbiont pool correlated with inshore–offshore environmental gradients. The environmental influence on the symbiont community composition supported the notion that the coral symbionts may contribute to coral adaptation to global change.

2.3. Ecotypes—Speciation

A central goal of evolutionary biology is to understand the formation of divergent populations and species and the drivers of this divergence. As tools and methods to address these questions have changed over time, De Jode et al. ( 2022 ) review a decade of marine divergence and speciation research combining genome‐wide data with demographic modeling to infer the demographic history of multiple marine species. Through this overview, they could show that while geographic barriers to gene flow do exist in the sea, divergence can also occur without strict isolation. Interestingly, most population pairs examined in this study exhibited heterogeneous gene flow, suggesting a predominance of semi‐permeable barriers during divergence. Another historical review of eco‐evolutionary divergence is outlined by Pampoulie et al. ( 2022 ), examining the past 60 years of management studies of Atlantic cod, Gadus morhua . Atlantic cod is heavily exploited across the northern Atlantic and with the advent of a fully assembled genome, genomic differences have been found between behavioral ecotypes that are either stationary or migratory. This study aims to provide insights into these ecotypes for more sustainable fisheries of the remaining stocks, while also reviewing the improvement of genomic methods over the time period.

The topic of advances in genomic methods is likewise explored in a study of the flat periwinkle Littorina fabalis , which displays a large and a dwarf ecotype occupying different microenvironments. Early genetic work found sharp allele frequency differences at the arginine kinase locus ( Ak ) along the environmental cline between these ecotypes (Tatarenkov & Johannesson,  1994 , 1998 ). Using whole‐genome sequencing, Le Moan et al. ( 2022 ) revisited this historically studied system to increase our understanding of the Ak variation and its relationship to the divergence between the two ecotypes. Le Moan et al. ( 2022 ) not only found nine nonsynonymous substitutions, which were a perfect fit to the different migration patterns of the Ak alleles, but also discovered that the Ak alleles were located on different arrangements of a putative chromosomal inversion.

As most organisms depend on symbioses to function, divergence in host‐symbiont relationships can be just as important to fitness as within‐species genomic divergence among ecotypes. The genomic divergence between ecotypes in Littorina was found to be mirrored by their gut bacterial community composition by Panova et al. ( 2022 ). The authors found that the biofilm communities that Littorina saxatilis grazed on differed depending on habitat, which, in turn, explained gut community differences between snail ecotypes. This system now also offers the possibility to study the co‐evolution of gut microbiota and their hosts in the marine environment.

Sexual selection is one of the most important drivers of ecotype and sexual dimorphism formation, as well as a driver of speciation. In many species, males diverge into dominant and sneaker males that try to access spawning opportunities by disguising themselves as females (Khelifa,  2019 ). There is also substantial empirical evidence of sneaking males that have evolved larger testes and more sperm in response to higher sperm competition (Mank,  2022 ; Taborsky,  2008 ). However, it is less clear how such increased sperm competition may affect sperm performance, e.g., motility, longevity, and velocity. To investigate this, Kvarnemo et al. ( 2022 ) conducted a comparative study of the sand goby, Pomatoschistus minutus , where they found a clear difference in gene expression between testes of nest‐building and parasitic sneaker males. However, despite these differences, Kvarnemo et al. ( 2022 ) found no significant divergence between the two male morphs in sperm traits. The authors concluded that their results supported previous findings that natural selection is unlikely to result in the evolution of increased sperm performance in response to higher sperm competition. Comparing how closely‐related species respond to different environments is another insightful method to explore adaptive divergence. In this Special Issue, Zhang et al. ( 2022 ) investigated two sympatric sister species, Crassostrea hongkongensis and Crassostrea ariakensis , to unravel the phenotypic patterns and molecular mechanisms underlying salinity adaptation in marine mollusks. Physiological parameters such as growth rate and survival suggested higher fitness of C. ariakensis in high‐salinity and of C. hongkongensis in low‐salinity. Zhang et al. ( 2022 ) also found that the two species exhibited differential gene expression, with many differentially expressed genes involved in important salinity‐responsive pathways. These results may aid the assessment of the adaptive capacity of economically important marine invertebrates in the context of climate change.

2.4. Phylogenetic biodiversity of the oceans

Comparative developmental biology is another important aspect of evolutionary biology and Stracke and Hejnol ( 2022 ) argue that the inclusion of more marine taxa in developmental models is a crucial step in understanding animal evolution, as many phylogenetic lineages are only present in the oceans. They further discuss how technological advances in the past decade have expanded our knowledge of the diversity of developmental biology, allowing the inclusion of more marine taxa. As a study case of these advanced methods, Sun et al. ( 2022 ) used phalloidin staining, in‐situ hybridization, and confocal laser scanning microscopy techniques to study mesodermal development in embryonal Lottia goshimai , the second species of trochophore‐larval bearing gastropods to be studied to date. Also highlighting this need for alternative model taxa in evolution, Li and Hui ( 2022 ) provide an overview of small RNA (sRNA) biology in cnidarians, calling for more studies of sRNA in complementary eukaryotes. This is a timely piece that also shows the progress in sRNA studies as important forces in gene expression and genome stability of eukaryotes. In some cases, the combination of morphological and molecular data can show that taxonomic practices do not reflect evolutionary processes, a subject explored by Korshunova et al. ( 2022 ) in their review on the “lumpers & splitters” dilemma. Using the nudibranch mollusk genera Catriona and Tenellia , the authors demonstrate that fine‐scale taxonomic differentiation of traits is an important tool in the integration of morphological and molecular data, and how lumping diversity into a single taxon can lead to producing an oversized, unmanageable taxon of highly disparate species.

In the past, color patterning has been a trait often used in species delineation. However, color patterns may arise in diverse evolutionary ways in different taxa and are not necessarily always associated with speciation (e.g., Andrade et al.,  2019 ). Gefaell et al. ( 2022 ) reviewed shell color polymorphism in marine gastropods, providing a summary of the patterns of color diversity in gastropod species, the underlying biochemical and genetic mechanisms in this trait, and the role of different evolutionary mechanisms in generating and preserving color polymorphism in gastropod taxa. Based on 61 studies, the authors conclude that natural selection is typically involved in the maintenance of shell color polymorphism in marine gastropods, although the roles of drift and gene flow were rarely considered or explicitly tested for in the reviewed articles. The diversity in color was also investigated by Stenger et al. ( 2022 ), who studied three shell color phenotypes of the pearl oyster Pinctada margaritifera . They used a pooled whole‐genome sequencing approach to investigate color‐associated SNPs in three wild populations and one hatchery. Their results not only confirmed known SNPs associated with pigment‐related genes but also identified new genes involved, as well as novel pathways. These findings are valuable for future breeding programs of pearl oysters.

3. DISCUSSION

Here we have gathered 26 articles that study different facets of evolution in marine environments. Increasing the knowledge on various aspects of evolution in the marine realm will be important to improve our understanding toward future responses to global change, expected outcomes of restoration programs, or appropriate management of economically important species. Broadly, the contributions to this issue can be grouped into four topics, each discussed below.

3.1. Experimental work involving common‐garden or reciprocal transplant experiments to study plasticity and local adaptation patterns

Marine evolutionary research is lagging behind its terrestrial counterpart, perhaps due to the difficulty of accurately simulating marine environments in laboratory conditions, or the complex life cycles (and sensitive larval stages) of many ecologically relevant species (Sanford & Kelly,  2011 ). The majority of marine studies on this topic have been limited in duration, number of drivers, and in the ability to extrapolate to fitness consequences over time. One crucial factor highlighted in this Special Issue is that the relationship between measured traits and fitness in common‐garden or transplant experiments needs to be well characterized to draw adequate conclusions about plastic or adaptive capabilities ( Eriksson et al.,  2022 ) . The fitness value of a particular trait is often hard to determine and even more in an understudied ecological context. While the field is readily moving toward multi‐stressor experiments, entire life cycles, and ideally with realistic ecological frameworks (Riebesell & Gattuso,  2015 ), this is certainly not a trivial task. The next decade will prove determinant in large‐scale developments in this area.

3.2. Connectivity and seascape genomics

The decreasing costs of sequencing technologies have allowed this field to expand considerably during the past decade. Consequently, numerous studies are now available, which combine field‐collected samples and population genomic inferences with environmental data to examine both local adaptation and barriers to gene flow in the marine realm. Most analytical methods originally developed in terrestrial systems are also applicable to marine organisms, albeit considering that marine taxa may have large population sizes and rather different dispersal mechanisms compared with terrestrial species (Liggins et al.,  2019 ). The complex life cycles of many organisms, the scarce knowledge about local temporal fluctuations in oceanic environmental parameters (especially in the coastal zone), and the lack of understanding of larval interactions with currents hamper the integration of genetic and biophysical connectivity studies (Riginos et al.,  2016 ), although both approaches generally confirm each other (Jahnke & Jonsson,  2022 ; Legrand et al.,  2022 ). Future collaborations between biologists and oceanographers will be crucial to solve these urgent issues, thereby providing managers and decision‐makers better tools to evaluate the effects of, e.g., marine spatial planning, restoration efforts, or climate change mitigation initiatives.

3.3. Ecotype formation and speciation

Despite the apparent lack of physical barriers in the oceans, studies have revealed a plethora of biological systems that include ecotypes with incipient barriers to gene flow. A classic example, first described already in 1990 (Johannesson & Johannesson,  1990 ) is the rough periwinkle, Littorina saxatilis , where nonrandom mating together with a highly heterogeneous environment has given rise to crab‐ and wave ecotypes. More recently, the ecotype concept has been applied to other organisms, as the contributions to this Special Issue have also been highlighted (De Jode et al.,  2022 ; Pampoulie et al.,  2022 ). For example, the Atlantic cod has been grouped into ecotypes based on behavioral differences (Knutsen et al.,  2018 ). All these systems provide excellent opportunities for studying speciation in the marine environment, with genetic features playing important roles in forming reproductive barriers, such as chromosomal rearrangements (Faria et al.,  2019 ; Johannesson et al.,  2020 ; Matschiner et al.,  2022 ). Another way to study speciation is through adaptive radiations such as the classic Darwin's finches (Grant & Grant,  2006 ) and cichlids in the African great lakes (Seehausen,  2004 ). In this issue, we highlight a marine example: the radiation of Magallana spp. oysters (formerly Crassostrea ) along the Chinese coast (Zhang et al.,  2022 ). Including marine examples in speciation genomics will clearly generate a more complete understanding of the process.

3.4. Phylogenetic biodiversity studies

The majority of all of the diversity of life exists in the oceans, exemplified by 80 % of all animal phyla only being solely marine (May,  1994 ). Only a very small part of this diversity has been studied and even less has been characterized at the genomic level. Indeed, the number of marine species with reference genomes available has increased dramatically over the past decade, including through efforts by members of the CeMEB community. Researchers from CeMEB sequenced the genomes of eight ecologically significant species, all present along the environmental gradient stretching into the “Darwinian laboratory” of the Baltic Sea (Johannesson et al.,  2020 ). The chosen species were seen as ecologically and evolutionary relevant for different aspects such as their phylogenetic diversity ( Pomatoschistus minutus ; Leder et al.,  2021 , Littorina saxatilis ; Westram et al.,  2018 ), stress tolerance ( Balanus improvisus ; Sundell et al.,  2019 ), coastal dynamics ( Fucus vesiculosus ; Kinnby et al.,  2020 , Idotea balthica ; De Wit et al.,  2020 ), development ( Amphiura filiformis ; Dupont & Thorndyke,  2006 ) and even as tractable model organisms for genetic modifications ( Skeletonema marinoi ; Johansson et al.,  2019 ). The more recent Earth BioGenome project initiative ( https://www.earthbiogenome.org/ ) aims to sequence genomes of all eukaryotes and has certainly contributed to the task in the marine realm. Nevertheless, much painstaking work is still needed to link these new genome sequences to functional aspects of the organisms' physiology. As gene function may differ across taxa (Jax et al.,  2018 ), newly sequenced organisms must be experimentally tested for this using different gene modification approaches in combination with developmental biology work (Santos et al.,  2015 ), as well as novel developments in microscopic imaging techniques (Stracke & Hejnol,  2022 ). To accomplish these crucial but still rare types of studies, stable cultures of new model organisms from distant branches on the tree of life will be much needed.

4. CONCLUSION

The field of marine evolutionary research has seen huge progress both in basic and applied science over the last decade, contributed by the increasing studies of nonmodel organisms, as well as technological and analytical developments. This Special Issue highlights that the current focus of marine evolutionary research is incredibly broad and highly relevant to the societal challenge of how biodiversity will reshape and transform under the global change.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

We would like to start by acknowledging the relentless work from all the members of the Centre through the years, and their support in making this issue. We would like to extend our gratitude to the Editor in Chief of Evolutionary Applications—Louis Bernatchez, who welcomed our idea for this Special Issue, as well as associate editor Maren Wellenreuther, who saw it through. We should also like to thank all the researchers who co‐authored the manuscripts published in this Special Issue. Furthermore, many researchers from across the field have put considerable effort into reviewing the presented papers. Their work is invaluable to our research community and we are incredibly grateful for the hours they have dedicated to this Special Issue. In 2008, the Linnaeus Centre for Marine Evolutionary Biology was funded by the Swedish Research Council (Vetenskapsrådet VR) and Formas, the Swedish Research Council for Environment, and the Agricultural Sciences and Spatial Planning. Funding from this initiative is still empowering initiatives such as this Special Issue, and other review works within the theme of Marine Evolutionary Biology. Professor Kerstin Johannesson acted as director of CeMEB for a decade and has always offered support to the network's researchers and students. We would also like to thank all people that invested time and effort to lead CeMEB in the steering committee over the years, namely Anders Blomberg, Carl André, Sam Dupont, Karin Hårding, Jon Havenhand, Per Jonsson, Lotta Kvarnemo, Henrik Pavia, Michael Thorndyke (in memoriam), Susanne Eriksson, Eva Marie Rödström, Ricardo Pereyra, Sonja Leidenberger, Marina Panova, Mårten Duvetorp, Olga Ortega‐Martinez, Martin Zackrisson, Pierre De Wit, Stina Jakobsson, Tomas Larsson, Leon Green, Hernan Morales, and Alexandra Kinnby. We specially thank the advisory board, which consisted of Prof. Jeanine Olsen, Prof. Staffan Bensch, Prof. Erik Bonsdorff, Prof. Stig Omholt, and Prof. Andrew Cameron (in memoriam). Eva‐Marie Rödström has been instrumental in coordinating both the scientific and logistic activities of the Centre ever since its inception. We would also like to thank our CeMEB colleagues over the years, with whom we have shared the inspiration, knowledge, and joy of exploring the natural world together. We should also like to thank Kerstin Johannesson and Jonathan Havenhand, and all corresponding authors of the contributions in this Special Issue for their critical comments on the draft version of this manuscript.

De Wit, P. , Faust, E. , Green, L. , Jahnke, M. , Pereyra, R. T. , & Rafajlović, M. (2023). A decade of progress in marine evolutionary biology . Evolutionary Applications , 16 , 193–201. 10.1111/eva.13523 [ CrossRef ] [ Google Scholar ]

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

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Marine Biology

• College of the Environment
• University of Washington

Core Research Areas

There are many ways to focus your studies or research in marine biology, and it can be difficult to know where to start. The University of Washington has faculty with expertise in a diverse range of research areas related to marine biology. To help you explore these areas, we group many topics of interest into four ‘core research areas’. Click on a specific topic to find faculty who teach or research in the areas you’re interested in.

Many Marine Biologists research specific groups of organisms. How and why did they evolve? What is unique about this group of organisms? Many people have an early interest in sharks, whales and fish. Try exploring a group you aren’t as familiar with – lesser-known groups such as marine invertebrates or seaweeds may surprise you!

Marine Microbiology Salmon Sharks Fish Invertebrates Marine Mammals Seabirds

How do organisms in the marine environment move, get energy, or reproduce? How do they adapt to the stresses of their environment? How do they interact with each other? When we examine processes, we think about the physiology of an organism (i.e, how does it work?) as well as how that organism is similar to or different from other life in the ocean. This can advance our understanding of life in the sea, and may even have implications for human health or engineering.

Evolution & Adaptation Animal Behavior Genetics/Genomics

Habitats and Ecosystems

Marine life does not exist alone. It is part of a complex system of interactions with other organisms and the physical environment. Studying the ‘big picture’ through ecology or oceanography is a critical part of marine biology.

Salish Sea Ecology Tropical Ecology & Corals Oceanography Arctic Ecology Quantitative Ecology & Modeling

Changing Oceans

The oceans are constantly changing due to the natural cycles of tides or seasons to longer-term changes in global climate. Humans influence change in the oceans as societal and economic forces drive what we take out of the ocean and what we put in. Marine Biologists have an important voice in decisions about conservation and marine policy.

Science Communication Resource Management Climate & Global Change Conservation

Research Topics

Scripps Oceanography researchers work in a variety of fields in biology, earth science, and oceans and atmospheric science. Select any of the topics below for a sampling of researchers in that field, labs and centers associated with the topic, and news stories about the work. 

• Biological Impacts of Climate Change
• Chemical Ecology
• Coastal Ecology
• Conservation Ecology
• Coral Reef Biology and Ecology
• Deep-Sea Biology
• Developmental Biology of Marine Organisms
• Ecosystem Dynamics and Theory
• Environmental Toxicology
• Fisheries Biology and Management
• Genomics, Metagenomics, and Bioinformatics
• Invertebrate Zoology and Parasitology
• Life History Strategies and Behaviors
• Marine Benthic Ecology
• Marine Chemical Biology and Biotechnology
• Marine Mammal Biology
• Marine Microbiology
• Natural Products Chemistry
• Phylogenetics, Systematics and Biogeography
• Physiology of Marine Organisms
• Phytoplankton Biology and Algal Biofuels
• Plankton Ecology and Food-Web Interactions
• Polar Ecology
• Population and Community Ecology
• Population Genetics and Evolutionary Biology
• Acoustics and Infrasound
• Archaeology
• Biogeochemistry
• Coastal Processes
• Cryosphere and Polar Science
• Electromagnetism
• Geodesy and Lithospheric Deformation
• Geodynamics
• Geomagnetism, Paleomagnetism
• Geomorphology
• High Temperature Geochemistry
• Hydrogeology
• Instrumentation and Observational Networks
• Isotopic Geochemistry
• Low Temperature Geochemistry
• Marine, Atmospheric, and Aqueous Tracers
• Marine Chemistry
• Marine Geology and Geophysics
• Mathematical and Theoretical Geophysics
• Planetary Sciences and Meteoritics
• Numerical Modeling
• Paleoceanography and Paleoecology
• Remote Sensing
• Sedimentary Processes
• Seismology and Earthquake Physics
• Tectonics and Structural Geology
• Volcanology
• Applied Ocean Sciences
• Atmospheric Aerosols and Chemistry
• Autonomous Ocean Platforms and Global Observing Systems
• Biogeochemistry and Greenhouse Gases
• Climate Change and Health
• Climate Sciences
• Cloud Physics and Boundary Layer Processes
• Coastal Oceanography
• Environmental Justice
• Global Hydrography and Circulation
• Ice in the Climate System
• Internal Waves and Ocean Mixing
• Land Surface Hydrology
• Modeling and State Estimation of the Oceans, Atmosphere, and Climate
• Nearshore and Surf Zone Processes
• Nonlinear and Surface Waves
• Ocean Acidification
• Ocean Acoustics
• Ocean-Atmosphere Interactions
• Ocean Instrumentation and Technology
• Ocean Optics
• Past Climate Change
• Physical Oceanography
• Public Health and Epidemiology
• Remote Sensing and Satellite Oceanography
• Southern Ocean and High-Latitude Climate Studies
• Tropical Meteorology and Oceanography
• Upper Ocean and Submesoscale Processes

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15+ Research Ideas in Marine Biology for High School Students

As an ambitious high school student interested in marine biology looking to better your chances of getting into a prestigious program, you may consider different options — from internships to summer schools — to improve your knowledge. If this sounds like you, then consider undertaking a research project! Marine ecosystems are intrinsically linked to climate change and healthy oceans, as food, water, and shelter sources, are necessary to sustain life.  

Marine biology is a vast field with multiple avenues for research. Not to mention, undertaking an intensive research project helps build skills like critical thinking, problem-solving, and communication, and can go a long way in showcasing your demonstrated interest in a subject.  Research experience will add value to your college application as it shows that you’re intellectually curious and have a great aptitude for learning.

Ambitious high school students selected for the Lumiere Research Scholar Programs  work on a research area of their interest and receive 1-1 mentorship by top Ph.D. scholars .

Below are some marine biology research ideas for you to consider, some of which have been shared by our research mentors – we hope they inspire you!

Topic #1 - The Climate Crisis and its impact on marine biodiversity

Faced with climate change, our oceans are facing one of their most vulnerable moments in history. Understanding the intersection between climate change and marine biology is crucial to conserving and managing marine ecosystems. Global warming, ocean acidification, and deoxygenation — collectively known as the “deadly trio”  — are making oceans increasingly inhospitable to life and inhibiting the functioning of marine ecosystems. As a researcher, you could conduct critical investigations within this field and suggest more sustainable practices to preserve the marine ecosystem.  Depending on your research goals and how much time and resources you can commit, you could conduct either primary or secondary research.

Here are a few ideas you could choose from: 

1. Investigate how rising temperatures are affecting the migratory patterns of fish within a designated zone. Research where these species go and how the composition of marine communities affects interactions between species.

2. How does ocean acidification — when oceans absorb more carbon dioxide from the air — harm different kinds of marine species? What knock-on impact does acidification have on coastal communities that depend on the ocean for food and their livelihood?

3. Examine how corals are responding to climate change, how the change in oceanic temperatures affects their reef-building capabilities, and the knock-on effects.

4. Research changing ocean currents and circulation patterns and how they can impact the distribution of nutrients, affecting the productivity of marine ecosystems

5. Dive into the correlation and causation between extreme weather events and climate change. How does rising temperature affect the frequency and intensity of cyclones, hurricanes, and other natural disasters? 

Some of these ideas were contributed by Lumiere Mentors from the University of San Diego, California.

Topic #2 - Coastal economies and the marine ecosystem

Coastal economics and communities have a complex interaction with marine biodiversity, and their actions have both economic and ecological outcomes on the ocean . Marine and human health are closely connected — seafood is an integral part of coastal communities’ diet and marine-based products provide them with livelihood. As a researcher, you could investigate creating healthy marine socio-economic systems for the future,  and consider diving deeper into some of the following ideas: 

6. Review the effectiveness of different nations’ coastal zone management policies and how well they balance economic vs. ecological needs. You could then compile your findings into a best practices list and suggest improvements to existing policies

7. Make a valuation of the economic services of a designated coastal region. This can include a valuation of fishing activities, tourism, ocean-sourced products, etc, and their contribution to the economy

8. Examine how marine conservation and tourism can go hand-in-hand. Suggest ways to ensure the sustainable development of coastal economies

9. Explore innovative practices in sustainable seafood production and their economic implications for coastal communities

10. Suggest adaptation strategies for coastal communities facing frequent extreme weather events. What steps can be taken to protect their homes and their livelihoods?

11. Study how marine pollution impacts coastal areas, marine biodiversity, and communities’ livelihoods

Topic #3 - Exploring marine genomics

Marine genomics provides critical clues to understanding how life evolved underwater and how marine animals contribute to the ecosystem and create new chemicals and materials. Life has evolved from the ocean, and marine genomics has been used to study the short - and long-term effects of pollution on sea animals, their evolution, and genetic commonalities between fish in a particular region, to name a few. As a marine genome researcher, you could extract meaningful data about the origin and evolution of species and how they may adapt to changing environments. 

Here are a few research ideas related to marine genomics that you could consider:

12. Examine how environmental DNA is found in aquatic ecosystems. Here, you can learn about different molecular techniques and use them in marine or freshwater invasive species management. 

13. Study how human activity (pollution, fishing, habitat destruction) has impacted marine genomes and how other anthropogenic factors have influenced adaptation and genetic diversity in marine organisms.

14. Study the genome of an endangered marine species to understand what genetic factors contribute to its vulnerability. Suggest and develop conservation strategies. 

15. Examine aquatic species that survive in extreme climates (deep-sea vents, polar regions, etc). Study their genomes to understand what genetic features allow them to thrive in such conditions.

16. Undertake a comparative genomics study: choose two organisms from different marine families and compare the similarities and differences in their genomes. Research into how their genomic variations could be due to their habitat, adaptations, and specific behavior.

Some of these ideas were proposed by independent Lumiere Mentors.

Topic #4 - Ocean-based solutions for global challenges

The ocean can address some of the world’s most pressing challenges, from reducing emissions to producing clean energy, improving food security, and much more. Further, studies  show that ocean-based climate solutions can reduce greenhouse gas emissions by up to 35%. As a researcher, you could help contribute to critical research that can help limit pollution and create sustainable practices.

Some research ideas you can consider include:

17. Investigate how introducing artificial coastal reefs and other techniques to restore habitats can help improve marine biodiversity.

18. Study the effect of plastic pollution on marine life and examine the benefits of adopting more eco-friendly and biodegradable packaging materials. Develop new methods to remove plastic from the ocean.

19. Study carbon sequestration, the process of capturing and storing excess carbon dioxide. How can coastal ecosystems like mangroves, saltmarshes, seagrasses, etc. help mitigate C02 emissions?

20. Study more sustainable and effective practices for ocean farming.

21. Research different marine organisms that have a positive environmental impact (for example, seaweed helps remove toxins from the water and has a negative carbon footprint).

The ideas offered here are by no means exhaustive, and you could come up with your own research interests once you’ve dug deeper into a topic that interests you!

Bonus — the Lumiere Research Scholar Program

If you are interested in doing university-level research in marine biology or other STEM subjects, then you could also consider applying to the Lumiere Research Scholar Program , a selective online high school program for students founded with researchers at Harvard and Oxford. Last year, over 4000 students applied for 500 spots in the program! You can find the application form   here.

Also check out the   Lumiere Research Inclusion Foundation , a non-profit research program for talented, low-income students.

Kieran Lobo is a freelance writer from India, who currently teaches English in Spain.

Image Source: Unsplash

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Published by Robert Bruce at August 29th, 2023 , Revised On September 5, 2023

Biology Research Topics

Are you in need of captivating and achievable research topics within the field of biology? Your quest for the best biology topics ends right here as this article furnishes you with 100 distinctive and original concepts for biology research, laying the groundwork for your research endeavor.

Table of Contents

Our proficient researchers have thoughtfully curated these biology research themes, considering the substantial body of literature accessible and the prevailing gaps in research.

Should none of these topics elicit enthusiasm, our specialists are equally capable of proposing tailor-made research ideas in biology, finely tuned to cater to your requirements. 

Thus, without further delay, we present our compilation of biology research topics crafted to accommodate students and researchers.

Research Topics in Marine Biology

• Impact of climate change on coral reef ecosystems.
• Biodiversity and adaptation of deep-sea organisms.
• Effects of pollution on marine life and ecosystems.
• Role of marine protected areas in conserving biodiversity.
• Microplastics in marine environments: sources, impacts, and mitigation.

Biological Anthropology Research Topics

• Evolutionary implications of early human migration patterns.
• Genetic and environmental factors influencing human height variation.
• Cultural evolution and its impact on human societies.
• Paleoanthropological insights into human dietary adaptations.
• Genetic diversity and population history of indigenous communities.

Biological Psychology Research Topics 

• Neurobiological basis of addiction and its treatment.
• Impact of stress on brain structure and function.
• Genetic and environmental influences on mental health disorders.
• Neural mechanisms underlying emotions and emotional regulation.
• Role of the gut-brain axis in psychological well-being.

Cancer Biology Research Topics 

• Targeted therapies in precision cancer medicine.
• Tumor microenvironment and its influence on cancer progression.
• Epigenetic modifications in cancer development and therapy.
• Immune checkpoint inhibitors and their role in cancer immunotherapy.
• Early detection and diagnosis strategies for various types of cancer.

Also read: Cancer research topics

Cell Biology Research Topics

• Mechanisms of autophagy and its implications in health and disease.
• Intracellular transport and organelle dynamics in cell function.
• Role of cell signaling pathways in cellular response to external stimuli.
• Cell cycle regulation and its relevance to cancer development.
• Cellular mechanisms of apoptosis and programmed cell death.

Developmental Biology Research Topics 

• Genetic and molecular basis of limb development in vertebrates.
• Evolution of embryonic development and its impact on morphological diversity.
• Stem cell therapy and regenerative medicine approaches.
• Mechanisms of organogenesis and tissue regeneration in animals.
• Role of non-coding RNAs in developmental processes.

Also read: Education research topics

Human Biology Research Topics

• Genetic factors influencing susceptibility to infectious diseases.
• Human microbiome and its impact on health and disease.
• Genetic basis of rare and common human diseases.
• Genetic and environmental factors contributing to aging.
• Impact of lifestyle and diet on human health and longevity.

Molecular Biology Research Topics 

• CRISPR-Cas gene editing technology and its applications.
• Non-coding RNAs as regulators of gene expression.
• Role of epigenetics in gene regulation and disease.
• Mechanisms of DNA repair and genome stability.
• Molecular basis of cellular metabolism and energy production.

Research Topics in Biology for Undergraduates

• 41. Investigating the effects of pollutants on local plant species.
• Microbial diversity and ecosystem functioning in a specific habitat.
• Understanding the genetics of antibiotic resistance in bacteria.
• Impact of urbanization on bird populations and biodiversity.
• Investigating the role of pheromones in insect communication.

Synthetic Biology Research Topics 

• Design and construction of synthetic biological circuits.
• Synthetic biology applications in biofuel production.
• Ethical considerations in synthetic biology research and applications.
• Synthetic biology approaches to engineering novel enzymes.
• Creating synthetic organisms with modified functions and capabilities.

Animal Biology Research Topics 

• Evolution of mating behaviors in animal species.
• Genetic basis of color variation in butterfly wings.
• Impact of habitat fragmentation on amphibian populations.
• Behavior and communication in social insect colonies.
• Adaptations of marine mammals to aquatic environments.

Also read: Nursing research topics

Best Biology Research Topics 

• Unraveling the mysteries of circadian rhythms in organisms.
• Investigating the ecological significance of cryptic coloration.
• Evolution of venomous animals and their prey.
• The role of endosymbiosis in the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
• Exploring the potential of extremophiles in biotechnology.

Biological Psychology Research Paper Topics

• Neurobiological mechanisms underlying memory formation.
• Impact of sleep disorders on cognitive function and mental health.
• Biological basis of personality traits and behavior.
• Neural correlates of emotions and emotional disorders.
• Role of neuroplasticity in brain recovery after injury.

Biological Science Research Topics: 

• Role of gut microbiota in immune system development.
• Molecular mechanisms of gene regulation during development.
• Impact of climate change on insect population dynamics.
• Genetic basis of neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer’s.
• Evolutionary relationships among vertebrate species based on DNA analysis.

Biology Education Research Topics 

• Effectiveness of inquiry-based learning in biology classrooms.
• Assessing the impact of virtual labs on student understanding of biology concepts.
• Gender disparities in science education and strategies for closing the gap.
• Role of outdoor education in enhancing students’ ecological awareness.
• Integrating technology in biology education: challenges and opportunities.

Biology-Related Research Topics

• The intersection of ecology and economics in conservation planning.
• Molecular basis of antibiotic resistance in pathogenic bacteria.
• Implications of genetic modification of crops for food security.
• Evolutionary perspectives on cooperation and altruism in animal behavior.
• Environmental impacts of genetically modified organisms (GMOs).

Biology Research Proposal Topics

• Investigating the role of microRNAs in cancer progression.
• Exploring the effects of pollution on aquatic biodiversity.
• Developing a gene therapy approach for a genetic disorder.
• Assessing the potential of natural compounds as anti-inflammatory agents.
• Studying the molecular basis of cellular senescence and aging.

Biology Research Topic Ideas

• Role of pheromones in insect mate selection and behavior.
• Investigating the molecular basis of neurodevelopmental disorders.
• Impact of climate change on plant-pollinator interactions.
• Genetic diversity and conservation of endangered species.
• Evolutionary patterns in mimicry and camouflage in organisms.

Biology Research Topics for Undergraduates 

• Effects of different fertilizers on plant growth and soil health.
• Investigating the biodiversity of a local freshwater ecosystem.
• Evolutionary origins of a specific animal adaptation.
• Genetic diversity and disease susceptibility in human populations.
• Role of specific genes in regulating the immune response.

Cell and Molecular Biology Research Topics 

• Molecular mechanisms of DNA replication and repair.
• Role of microRNAs in post-transcriptional gene regulation.
• Investigating the cell cycle and its control mechanisms.
• Molecular basis of mitochondrial diseases and therapies.
• Cellular responses to oxidative stress and their implications in ageing.

These topics cover a broad range of subjects within biology, offering plenty of options for research projects. Remember that you can further refine these topics based on your specific interests and research goals.

Frequently Asked Questions 

What are some good research topics in biology?

A good research topic in biology will address a specific problem in any of the several areas of biology, such as marine biology, molecular biology, cellular biology, animal biology, or cancer biology.

A topic that enables you to investigate a problem in any area of biology will help you make a meaningful contribution. 

How to choose a research topic in biology?

Choosing a research topic in biology is simple. 

Follow the steps:

• Generate potential topics. 
• Consider your areas of knowledge and personal passions. 
• Conduct a thorough review of existing literature.
•  Evaluate the practicality and viability. 
• Narrow down and refine your research query. 
• Remain receptive to new ideas and suggestions.

Who Are We?

For several years, Research Prospect has been offering students around the globe complimentary research topic suggestions. We aim to assist students in choosing a research topic that is both suitable and feasible for their project, leading to the attainment of their desired grades. Explore how our services, including research proposal writing , dissertation outline creation, and comprehensive thesis writing , can contribute to your college’s success.

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104 Marine Life Essay Topic Ideas & Examples

🏆 best marine life topic ideas & essay examples, 👍 good essay topics on marine life, ⭐ simple & easy marine life essay titles.

• Marine Degradation and Solutions in the Pacific Region The second issue related to the degradation of marine resources in the Pacific region is the unsustainable use of marine resources, including destructive fishing, which leads to changes in the number and health of species.
• Sea Otters’ Life Cycle From Birth to Death However, after the species had almost become extinct and their protection began, the species began to recover and towards the close of the 20th century, conservation had given rise to tens of thousands of sea […]
• Climate Change Impacts on Ocean Life The destruction of the ozone layer has led to the exposure of the earth to harmful radiation from the sun. The rising temperatures in the oceans hinder the upward flow of nutrients from the seabed […]
• Ocean Currents: General Information There are generally two types of ocean currents depending on the water level where the movement of oceanic water takes place and they are the deep ocean currents and the surface ocean currents.
• The Ocean Pollution Problem Overview Ocean pollution is the unfavorable upshot due to the entrance of chemicals and particulate substances into the ocean. The land is the key source of ocean pollution in the form of non-point water pollution.
• Plastic Waste and Its Effects on Marine Life However, many people do not appreciate the importance of oceans to human and marine life. Another effect of microplastics on the marine community is that they lead to uneven distribution of organisms.
• Deep Sea Volcanoes and their Effects Deep sea volcanoes are present under deep sea ridges of the ocean floor and the above research has been based on the amount of carbon dioxide that is present in depths of four kilometers on […]
• Living Resources of the Ocean The most commendable among the benefits of marine life to human life are the fact that marine life can act as food and the fact that some oceanic organisms have medicinal value.
• The Aral Sea Problems, Their Causes and Consequences To identify and analyze the problems of the lake, its basin, and the entire region To discuss the causes and consequences of the lake’s destruction To evaluate the solutions proposed for ameliorating the consequences The […]
• Marine Surveying, Inspection and Safety Practices The importance of these conventions and rules was to address the need to access different ports in different countries based on uniform rules and standards acceptable to destination ports or countries in addition to maintaining […]
• The Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004 and Its Consequences The worst effects of the great wave were observed in Indonesia, where the death toll exceeded 160,000 people, and the overall damages almost reached $4.
• Deep-Sea Currents and Upwelling Along Florida The thermohaline circulation influences the movement and population of the marine ecosystem and heat redistribution both in the sea and on the earth’s surface.
• The Impacts of Oil Spills on Marine Life The intensity of aquatic effects is influenced by the nature and extent of the spilt oil. Besides, the severity might be influenced by the sensitivity and ambient state of the pretentious marine and their surroundings […]
• High Seas Marine Protected Areas: Effective Legislation or Paper Parks This essay dwells on the definition and importance of MPAs, including the ones in the high sea. The goal of the alliance is to bolster international collaboration and exchange of knowledge.
• Life in the Bottom of the Ocean and Its Protection While we all strive hard to detect and analyze the essence of life and the impact it has on our lives, we need to understand that life in itself is a big mystery, the truth […]
• Sea Foods in the Environment Protection Context Further, the purpose of the website is to give information that seeks to reward the efforts of people who protect and safeguard the ocean and seafood supplies such as lobsters.
• Non-trophic Interaction in Marine Species An example of non-trophic relationships between marine species is decorator crabs and sponges. Decorator crabs and sponges’ relations are an example of mutually helpful non-trophic interaction mutualism.
• The Rising of Sea Level and Melting Glaciers: Analysis of the Issues In modern realities, the rate of warming of the World’s Oceans has increased. Global warming provokes the melting of ice in Greenland and Antarctica.
• How the Ocean Current Affect Animals’ Life in the Sea Depending on the strength of the ocean current, sea animals along the path are flown along with the water, and the animals are moved to new regions that are sometimes thousands of kilometers away causing […]
• The Aral Sea’s Environmental Issues Prior to its destruction, the Sea was one of the biggest water bodies, rich in different species of flora and fauna; a case that is opposite today, as the sea is almost becoming extinct.
• Ocean Dumping Issue and Rhetorical Rationale Therefore, the goal of this paper is to prove that the poster in question manages to accomplish an impressive goal of subverting the audience’s expectation and encouraging them to shift from an ironic perception of […]
• Marine Life in United Arab Emirates This report analyses the marine life in the UAE, covering detailed information about the various species of animals found in the region and their adaptation to the unique environment.
• Marine Parks Concept Overview In terms of marine tourism, aquatic parks offer the best solution for tourists because they are cheaper than watching animals in the sea.
• The Global Ocean Conveyor Belt This ocean water phenomenon is a result of the temperature difference in the ocean waters between the warm, salty surface water, and the less salty cold water in the ocean depths.
• Ecotoxicology in the Marmara Sea: A Critical Review The importance and actuality of the paper can not be exaggerated, as the problem of toxic wastes is one of the most burning in Europe.
• The Negatives of Fossil Fuel: Ocean Acidification and Human Health The adverse effects of burning oil are hard to overestimate. Unless specific and practical actions are taken to address the issues of global climate change and pollution issues and reduce reliance on oil, the future […]
• Impacts of Climate Change on Ocean The development of phytoplankton is sensitive to the temperature of the ocean. Some marine life is leaving the ocean due to the rising water temperature.
• Exploring Environmental Issues: Marine Ecotourism For marine ecotourism to succeed, it must thrive in a manner that accommodates the needs of both the current and future generations and safeguards the natural environment.
• Autonomous Platforms in Marine Research One of the significant ideas that can increase the overall efficiency of the data collection process is the creation of networks of autonomous platforms.
• The Sea Water Impact on the Human Cell Hence, consuming it causes a high amount of salt without the human cell, which leads to a steep concentration gradient within the cell, thereby causing water to be drawn out, which is detrimental to the […]
• Ocean Sustainability and Human Economic Activity The world economy and the livelihoods of hundreds of millions of people depend on the ocean. It is important to remember that the misuse of water resources and the effects of global climate change will […]
• Integrated Coastal Zone Management in the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden The role of the ICZM in the control of environmental, transport, industrial, and other types of safety is high, and the example of the RSGA region proves this.
• Mining and Ocean Use in Canada Cobalt, nickel, manganese, and copper are among the metals deep seabed mining seeks to extract from the polymetallic nodules on the seafloor and seamounts.
• Addressing Marine Debris: Causes, Effects, and Potential Solutions A major limitation that makes the eradication of the problem difficult is the fact that most of the debris contains microplastic.
• How Deep Sea Discoveries Inspires Professional Creativity Limited technological access to the deep seas should inspire one to focus on the necessary technology to build the most efficient deep-sea robots.
• Visiting San Francisco Bay as Marine Protected Area San Francisco Bay Bridge will become the central place for this trip because it is just in the center of this view.
• Habitat and Ocean Life Considerations of Bottlenose Dolphins The temperate and tropical oceans of the world are home to bottlenose dolphins. On the American continent, bottlenose dolphins can be seen along California’s southern beaches and the eastern seaboard from Massachusetts to Florida, and […]
• The Ocean Dumping Problem: A Visual Argument There is, however, less awareness of deep-sea drilling and the impacts on the habitat and human life in the oceans and along the coasts.
• Australia’s Endangered Diverse Marine Ecosystem Climate Change and population increase are becoming increasingly difficult to perceive distinctly, especially when the question is about the loss of a diverse marine environment.
• Marine Environment Protection and Management in the Shipping Industry Therefore, criminal penalties system in collaboration with the Environmental Protection Agency should reinforce legislations to protect sea creatures and humans from oil pollution or wastes from ships.
• Marine Creatures and Terrestrial Animals in “The Wild West: Gold Rush” In fact, Californian nature is rich in various animal species that live to survive and pass their genes to the offspring.
• Integrated Ocean Drilling Program Expedition 342 Such flows reduce the temperature of the planet’s core, change the composition of the foundation bedrock, and impact microorganism dispersion in the subterranean ecosystem.
• Ocean Circulation and Biogeography, Species Distribution, Invasive Species The concept of ocean circulation refers to the movements of water in the oceans and seas. Surface ocean currents carry water from the poles to the tropics, where it is heated, and, afterwards, this water […]
• “History of Ocean Basins” by Hess From the article it is vivid that the coming into being of oceans is subject to discussion since the previous knowledge is doubtful, and the existing framework is confusing.
• Plastic Ocean and Its Effect on the Ecosystem The purpose of this essay is to present science-based facts in support of the author’s words to convince the reader of the criticality of the ecological problem.
• Marine Protected Areas: Impact on Kelp Forest Recovery and Urchin Reduction The research aims to study the effectiveness of MPA for kelp forest recovery and urchin reduction. The research aims to study the effectiveness of MPA for kelp forest recovery and urchin reduction.
• Environmental Marine Ecosystems: Biological Invasions One of the biggest hypoxic zones in the US is in the Gulf of Mexico. The condition of water in the area caused the decline of the shrimp industry.
• Effect of Sea Water and Corrosion on Concrete On the other hand, substantial tautness, for instance due to meandering will shatter the tiny firm pattern, ending up in fracturing and disjointing of the concrete.
• Effects of Global Warming on Marine Life Global warming has adverse effects on the marine life. It has led to the extinction of some of the animals and living things and has been necessitated by human activities.
• Deep-Sea Biology: The Search for a Sea Monster This case study is about the attempts of Clyde Roper to find the giant squid. This canyon is known to be very deep and runs towards the Kermadec Trench which is also documented to be […]
• Bacterial Diseases of Marine Organisms The striped dolphin is a highly susceptible host of the bacteria and poses and the most potent reservoir and source of transmission of the infectious agent.
• How Climate Change Impacts Ocean Temperature and Marine Life The ocean’s surface consumes the excess heat from the air, which leads to significant issues in all of the planet’s ecosystems.
• Dell’s Initiative to Recycle Ocean-Bound Plastics The innovation to use plastics from the ocean and areas where these materials had a high risk of moving to the water was presented to the company in 2015.
• Intergovernmental Relations and Ocean Policy Change The administration of Ronald Reagan contributed to the Federal ocean policy in the 1980s. During this change, analysts believed the United States was making a shift from ocean protection of the 1970s to ocean management […]
• Improving the Response to Marine Emergencies However, we still need to facilitate this process, for instance, by informing the National Fire Service about the implementation of this project and its results. These are the most objectives that have to be attained […]
• A Benchmarking Biodiversity Survey of the Inter-Tidal Zone at Goat Island Bay, Leigh Marine Laboratory Within each quadrant, the common species were counted or, in the case of seaweed and moss, proliferation estimated as a percentage of the quadrant occupied.
• Ocean Circulation in a Warming Climate These effects will enhance the development of reduced release of radio-carbon depleted carbon dioxide gas and thus the idea of the self-restoration mechanism of the earth to this global warming.
• Protected Marine Areas: Great Barrier Reef To protect the Great Barrier Reef the administration has put in place several policies to protect this region. In this plan, A panel of scientists was to advise on the quality of waste.
• Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion The warm seawater is carried into a chamber and is used to produce vapor that, in turn, is used to rotate a turbine.
• Review of the Quaternary History of Reefs in the Red Sea With Reference to Past Sea-Level Changes Some of the changes have occurred on the very grandest of scales, such as the Merging and ensuing breaking up of huge supercontinents, or the decimation of the dinosaurs by extra-terrestrial impacts.reefs are not invulnerable […]
• Radiocarbon C14 Dating in Marine Geology The radiocarbon technique can say to be one of the most important inventions of the 20th century, especially in the field of human science.
• Marine Biology: Polar Oceans as an Eco System The water in and around the Antarctic continent is referred to as the Antarctic or Southern Ocean. The Atlantic Water is situated between the Arctic Surface Water and the Arctic Deep Water.
• Marine Pollution: Management and International Legislation Marine environment refers to: the physical, chemical, geological and biological components, conditions and factors which interact and determine the productivity of, state, condition and quality of the marine ecosystem, the waters of the seas and […]
• Marine Pollution: Sources, Types, Pathways, and Status By examining sources, types, pathways, and status of water contamination in the context of the World Ocean, it is clear that most marine pollution caused by human actions, especially the mismanagement of plastic debris.
• Concerns of Ocean Ecosystem Pollution The range of adverse outcomes for ocean ecosystems can be discussed in volumes; however, the current discussion will focus on trash in the ocean waters, acidification, and the disruption of the marine life cycles.
• Hudson River’s Ocean Floor Investigation Mapping the ocean floor of the Hudson River would enable the analysis of sediments and the bottom surface hardness as well as would provide data on bottom features and the depth of the river.
• Port Philip Bay and Sea Levels in Australia’s Geological History As the scientist explains, the phenomenon of the port’s emergence in the dry environment can be attributed to the fact that considerable water shrinkage could be observed in the area roughly 1,000 years ago.
• Geology: Port Phillip Bay and Sea Level Changes Specifically, the fossils of specific creatures, such as the shells of tertiary foraminifera, as well as the meanders of the river channels, which were located in the area, are bound to bolster the hypothesis suggested […]
• Marine Algae Associated Bacteria as Antioxidants The antinociceptive activity analysis involved comparing the reaction time of mice treated with the extracts and the controls. The authors conclude that the isolation and characterization of the bioactive principles from the potent strains could […]
• Ocean-Plate Tectonics and Geology Bathymetry of the ocean seafloor refers to the measurement of how deep the sea is in relation to the sea level.
• “Manifest Destiny”: Westward Expansion to the Pacific Ocean The concept of Manifest Destiny elucidates the states of mind of many expansionist principle makers of the period who worked hard in an attempt to push America’s borders towards the west.
• Impact of Sea Transport on the Aquatic Environment The shipping companies also have a serious impact on the maritime environment in terms of the wastes often released into the water.
• Climate Change Effects on Ocean Acidification The scientists realized that the crisis lasted for several millennia before the oceans could fully recover from the impacts of the drop in the pH level.
• Marine Geology, Hydrology and Human Impact on Earth However, the implementation of the new technologies and practices in the process of investigation of the sea depths resulted in the appearance of the new meaning.
• Marine Ecosystems, Human Dependence and Impact The growth of communities dependent on fishing is proportional to the destruction of marine ecosystems. The survival of the human race, and the survival of millions of species of wildlife is dependent on a healthy […]
• The Northern Sea Route’ Safety Management The company discusses the opportunity to trade some of the vessels with the help of the NSR. The NSR is discussed as an attractive option to decrease the time spent in the voyage while comparing […]
• Water Crisis, Oceans and Sea Turtles Issues In the case of Mexico, it appears that the past regimes have never put a lot of focus on the utilization of water resources.
• National Marine Fishery Service Business Projects Within a fishery management context, the report primarily focuses on the provisions of the Magnuson-Steven Fishery Conservation and Management Reauthorization Act issues in 2006.
• The Dead Sea Geochemical History Globally, the most saline location is found on the water surfaces and shores of the Dead Sea. On the other hand, the pattern of fluctuation in temperature and salinity in the Arctic Ocean is complex.
• SOFAR Effects on the Marine Life The speed and energy of the sounds that are transmitted in the SOFAR channel are maintained without being altered because of the pressure, which increases with increase in depth.
• Ocean Acidification Impact on the Sea Urchin Larval Growth Due to the carbon dioxide increase in the atmosphere, acidity in the oceans is increasing++ and a fast increase of change rate is experienced.
• Deep Sea Mining: Salt Extraction This therefore shows how important the process of evaporation is in regard to extraction of salt from the sea. This therefore explains that sea water is a cheap source of salt in terms of time […]
• Pacific Ocean: Essentials of Oceanography The ocean has about 25,000 islands which are in excess of the entire number islands in all the oceans across the world. The volume of water in the ocean is about 622 million km3.
• Marine Pollution and the Anthropogenic Effects Upon It Marine pollution denotes the introduction of harmful materials or chemicals in our oceans which may disrupt the marine ecosystem, cause other harmful effects to marine life or change the chemical properties of the water.
• Marine Biodiversity Conservation and Impure Public Goods The fact that the issue concerning the global marine biodiversity and the effects that impure public goods may possibly have on these rates can lead to the development of a range of externalities that should […]
• El Niño’s Effects on Marine Life El Nino makes the winds of the east blow to the west and moves the layers of warm water in the Pacific Ocean.
• Marine Ecosystems in Oceanography Studies While oceanography students need to understand these aspects of ocean management, this paper focused on marine ecosystems, as a broad and useful topic in oceanography studies.
• Ocean Acidification: Marine Calcification Process This article correlates calcium with oceanography because the process of acidification, which causes the ocean’s pH to decrease because of excess carbon from the atmosphere, has impacts on calcifying organisms in the oceans.
• Ecology Issues: Creatures of the Deep Sea Discuss the negative changes that are occurring and the cause of these changes In the recent past, the temperature on the earth has been rising steadily due to the effect of global warming.
• Ocean Literacy and Exploration From the onset of “human-ocean interaction and exploration in the fifteenth century” and despite ocean being the largest feature of the earth, only 5% of the ocean is known.
• Ocean and Atmosphere Circulation Oceanic and atmospheric circulation is the means by which heat is distributed on the surface of the Earth by large scale circulation of air.
• The Role of Sea Power in International Trade The historical influence that the marines or the navy has had on international trade and the complications in comparing measures of sea power has been issues of discussion in the past.
• Ocean Fisheries Sustainability Analysis It is necessary for fishing industries to use better fishing methods in the ocean to ensure that their activities do not endanger the ecological balance. Fish species do not get the chance to replenish and […]
• Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary Reefs This essay addresses some of the disturbances which have been experienced in the coral reefs of the Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary together with measures which have been implemented to salvage the ecosystem.
• Marine Conservation and Coastal Development The committee should comprise of a balanced membership for holistic review of the coastal development projects. The lack of legislation related to marine conservation is also a major setback.
• The Problem of Ocean Pollution in Modern World Wastes such as toxic matter, plastics, and human wastes are some of the major sources of pollution in the ocean. Many people consume fish as food; when marine life is affected by toxic substance in […]
• Plastic Ocean Pollution on Ocean Life in U.S. Ocean plastic pollution has had a great impact on a minimum of two hundred and sixty seven species across the world and these include forty three percent of all of the sea mammal species, eighty […]
• Impact of the Toxic Substances on Marine Ecosystem The condition of hypoxia is created when algal biomass decompose leading to dissolution of oxygen in the water column. While, on the other hand, farming of Bluefin tuna leads to destruction of marine life as […]
• Climate Shift Could Leave Some Marine Species Homeless This is very important as it helps put pressure on countries to reduce on carbon release, in order to conserve the environment and hence species at risk.
• The Difficulties in Exploiting Sea Floor Massive Sulfide Deposits However, the difficulties involved in exploring the minerals have been the greatest obstacles to the full exploration of sea floor mineral deposits such as sulphide. The regulatory environment is the other issue of concern in […]
• Global Warming Outcomes and Sea-Level Changes The outcome of global warming has been exhibited by the melting of ice and snows in areas such as the Antarctic which has changed the average sea level of the whole world because the ice […]
• The Ocean’s Rarest Mammal Vaquita – An Endangered Species The vaquita looks like a curved stocky porpoise, and it is the smallest of all the porpoises in the world. This is a matter of concern and ought to be investigated if the survival of […]
• Policy Change to Control Ocean Dumping Policies addressing the issue of ocean dumping and the need to curb it have been in place. Several factors fueled the change; for instance, change in the information concerning the effect of ocean dumping to […]
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IvyPanda. (2024, February 29). 104 Marine Life Essay Topic Ideas & Examples. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/marine-life-essay-topics/

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IvyPanda . 2024. "104 Marine Life Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." February 29, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/marine-life-essay-topics/.

1. IvyPanda . "104 Marine Life Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." February 29, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/marine-life-essay-topics/.

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IvyPanda . "104 Marine Life Essay Topic Ideas & Examples." February 29, 2024. https://ivypanda.com/essays/topic/marine-life-essay-topics/.

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Marine microbiology articles from across Nature Portfolio

Marine microbiology is the study of the microorganisms (bacteria, archaea, viruses and microbial eukaryotes) in the marine environment, including their biodiversity, ecology and biogeochemistry. The use of metagenomics has been fundamental in revealing the abundance and composition of marine microbial ecosystems.

Latest Research and Reviews

Ligand cross-feeding resolves bacterial vitamin B 12 auxotrophies

Two species of auxotrophic marine bacteria are shown to share precursors to synthesize the essential cofactor vitamin B 12 , and such ligand cross-feeding may be a common phenomenon in the ocean and other ecosystems.

• Gerrit Wienhausen
• Cristina Moraru
• Meinhard Simon

Impact of the diet in the gut microbiota after an inter-species microbial transplantation in fish

• Alberto Ruiz
• Enric Gisbert
• Karl B. Andree

Strong chemotaxis by marine bacteria towards polysaccharides is enhanced by the abundant organosulfur compound DMSP

The ability of marine bacteria to direct their movement in response to chemical gradients influences inter-species interactions, nutrient turnover, and ecosystem productivity. Here, Clerc et al. show that marine bacteria are strongly attracted to algal polysaccharides, and this chemotactic behaviour is enhanced by dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP), a ubiquitous algal metabolite.

• Estelle E. Clerc
• Jean-Baptiste Raina
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Metagenomic profiles of archaea and bacteria within thermal and geochemical gradients of the Guaymas Basin deep subsurface

The authors study microbial communities in hydrothermally heated, subseafloor sediment layers. They find that microbial abundance and diversity decrease with sediment depth and temperature, and provide evidence for the existence of a specialized deep, hot biosphere.

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Taxonomic identification and temperature stress tolerance mechanisms of Aequorivita marisscotiae sp. nov

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Biodegradation of PET by the membrane-anchored PET esterase from the marine bacterium Rhodococcus pyridinivorans P23

A PET-degrading bacterium forming biofilms on PET surfaces was isolated from marine deep-sea sediment. The PET esterase localized at the cell surface was constitutively produced and also slowly degrading MHET to TPA under acidic conditions.

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News and Comment

Nitroplast organelle unveiled.

A recent study reports the existence of a nitrogen-fixing organelle called the ‘nitroplast’.

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Culturing enigmatic marine bacteria

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Bacterial collective harvests carbon

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Ciliate symbionts create the flow

This study shows that flagellate epibionts channel nutrient flows towards their large diatom host.

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Exploring the role of risk gene CNTN4 and APP in neuronal development

Dr asami oguro-ando tells us about the research published in her new open biology paper, a study which explores the pivotal role of the gene cntn4 and app in neuronal development..

Please could you tell us a little bit about your article?

We are excited to announce our recent publication, " CNTN4 Modulates Neural Elongation through Interplay with APP ," featured in Open Biology . This study delves into the intricate relationship between risk gene the neuronal cell molecule contactin-4 (CNTN4) and amyloid precursor protein (APP), elucidating their roles in neurodevelopmental disorders and Alzheimer's disease. We've detailed how CNTN4, a neuronal cell adhesion molecule, is instrumental in shaping neuronal morphology and spine density. Additionally, our findings reveal a co-dependent interaction between CNTN4 and APP crucial for neurite outgrowth, alongside a novel compensatory expression mechanism between these proteins.

What is the significance of CNTN4 and why did you choose to focus on this?

CNTN4 caught our attention during our research into 3p26 deletion syndrome—a condition linked with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD), as cited in Gandawijaya et al., 2021 . While CNTN4 is identified as a candidate gene for ASD, its functional roles were not well understood. This gap in knowledge spurred us to explore how CNTN4 functions within the brain, particularly its interactions with proteins involved in neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's.

Co-authors Madeline Eve and Asami Oguro-Ando, University of Exeter.

Were there any surprising findings from the study?

Our research uncovered that CNTN4 not only contributes to neural elongation in the Frontal Cortex but also regulates its expression alongside APP, a protein implicated in Alzheimer's disease. It was quite remarkable to discover that CNTN4, a gene linked to developmental processes, also plays a role in modulating factors involved in Alzheimer's disease. This intersection of developmental and neurodegenerative pathways offers exciting new insights into the broader implications of these proteins.

What’s next for you or your group’s research?

Looking ahead, our group is keen to further dissect the molecular mechanisms underpinning the interaction between CNTN4 and APP and explore their wider implications for disorders like Alzheimer's and ASD. Our next steps involve clarifying how the CNTN4-APP interaction impacts neural activity. Understanding this interaction is crucial as it represents a fundamental step towards a comprehensive grasp of neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders.

Group members at the University of Exeter including co-authors Josan Gandawijaya, Rosie Bamford and Madeline Eve. 

How did you find the Review Commons process and publishing with Open Biology ?

Our experience with Review Commons was exceptionally constructive. The streamlined peer review process facilitated a more efficient publication route, allowing us to refine our research with valuable feedback effectively. The impartial comments from reviewers who were not targeting a specific journal and the positive feedback aimed at enhancing our paper's quality were particularly striking. This process not only expedited our ability to share significant findings but also elevated the quality of our publication through rigorous peer evaluations. We are thoroughly satisfied with the outcome in Open Biology and are deeply appreciative of the genuine engagement from the journal in handling our revisions.

Dr. Oguro-Ando is a researcher and lecturer at the University of Exeter Medical School and has been interested in life science since she was a child, especially, how lives play rolls in plasticity to the environment. Asami’s group research aim is to further our understanding of the molecules, cells and circuits that underlie neurodevelopmental disorders affecting mental health including Autism is critical for developing more effective therapies for these disorders.

Open Biology accepts papers via Review Commons saving authors time by facilitates quicker, informed decisions without restarting the peer review process. We are looking to publish more high-quality research articles in cellular and molecular biology. Find out more about our author benefits and submission process .

Image credits: Hero image: Human neuroblastoma SH-SY5Y cells. Credit: Asami Oguro-Ando.  Photo credits: Asami Oguro-Ando. 

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Summers warm up faster than winters, fossil shells from Antwerp show

In a warmer climate, summers warm much faster than winters. That is the conclusion of research into fossil shells by earth scientist Niels de Winter. With this knowledge we can better map the consequences of current global warming in the North Sea area.

De Winter, affiliated with the Department of Earth Sciences at Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam and the AMGC research group at Vrije Universiteit Brussel, measured alongside colleagues from institutions such as the Institute for Natural Sciences in Brussels the chemical composition of fossil shells from Antwerp, Belgium. Those shells originate from molluscs such as oysters, cockles, and scallops found during the construction works of the Kieldrecht Lock. The molluscs lived lived during the Pliocene, approximately three million years ago, in the North Sea, which at that time also covered parts of Flanders and the Netherlands. The shells grew layer by layer, much like tree rings or fingernails, and stored very detailed information in their shell during their lifetime.

Snapshot of the seasons

During the Pliocene, the Earth was on average 2.5 to 3 degrees Celsius warmer than it is now. In their study, published in Science Advances , the researchers took a 'snapshot' of the climate at that time to gain insight into the difference between the seasons in a warmer climate.

Rare heavy isotopes

They use the 'clumped isotope analysis' method. With this method, researchers study the composition of shells in even more detail. They do this by measuring the extent to which rare heavy isotopes of both oxygen and carbon occur in the same carbonate from which shells are built. These isotopes are more common in shells that formed in colder waters. As a result, the measurements can be used to reconstruct the temperature in which the shells were formed. This method is more accurate than conventional methods for temperature reconstructions because it does not rely on assumptions about the composition of the seawater in which the mollusks grew.

Summers heat up more than winter

The key insight is that summers warm much more than winters in a warmer climate such as the Pliocene. While winters became about 2.5 degrees warmer, temperatures during summer were about 4.3 degrees higher. The researchers see a similar result in models projecting future climate, which predict roughly the same amount of warming for the year 2100.

The study gives us a glimpse of what the climate in Europe will be like if we continue our current trend towards a warmer world. De Winter: "We will likely experience stronger temperature differences between summer and winter, and the chance of heatwaves during the summer will increase."

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Story Source:

Materials provided by Vrije Universiteit Brussel . Note: Content may be edited for style and length.

Journal Reference :

• Niels J. de Winter, Julia Tindall, Andrew L. A. Johnson, Barbara Goudsmit-Harzevoort, Nina Wichern, Pim Kaskes, Philippe Claeys, Fynn Huygen, Sonja van Leeuwen, Brett Metcalfe, Pepijn Bakker, Stijn Goolaerts, Frank Wesselingh, Martin Ziegler. Amplified seasonality in western Europe in a warmer world . Science Advances , 2024; 10 (20) DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adl6717

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